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FEEDING  EXPERIMENTS  WITII  ^ORSF,3’ 
DRIED  BREWERS'  GRAINS  VS.  OATS. 


NEW  JERSEY 


AGRICULTURAL  ' 

Experiment  Station* 

92 


(,30.-7 


A 


I l/6>  aT 

,92 


I 

NEW  JERSEY  ' 

Agricultural  Experiment  Station: 

BULLETIN  92. 

FEBRUARY  1,  1893. 


Feeding  Experiments  With  Horses. 
Dried  Brewers’  Grains  vs.  Oats. 


BY  EDWARD  B.  YOORHEES. 
LOUIS  A.  YOORHEES. 


The  work  in  connection  with  this  experiment  is  discussed  under  six 
heads,  viz. : 

1.  Feeding  experiments  with  horses. 

2.  Plan  of  the  experiment ; results  secured. 

3.  Chemical  composition  of  the  rations  used. 

Jf.  Economy  of  the  dried  brewers’  grains  ration. 

5.  Composition  of  wet  and  dried  brewers’  grains  ; methods  of  drying . 

6.  Estimated  output  of  dried  brewers’  grains . 


1. 

Feeding  Experiments  with  Horses. 

A comparatively  large  number  of  the  American  Experiment  Sta- 
tions have  conducted  feeding  experiments  with  milch  cows,  beef 
cattle,  pigs  and  young  stock  of  all  kinds,  and  much  has  been  learned 
not  only  as  to  their  needs,  but  as  to  the  adaptability  of  the  different 
fodders  and  feeds  for  various  purposes  of  feeding.  Practically 
nothing,  however,  has  been  done  in  studying  the  food  requirements 
of  work-horses.  That  no  work  has  been  done  in  this  line  does  not 
prove  that  the  system  of  feeding  in  common  use  is  perfect,  or  that 


4 


the  feeding  of  the  work-horse  is  a matter  of  comparative  insignifi- 
cance. We  have  abundant  evidence  that,  on  the  whole,  the  feeding 
of  wbrk^hbrses  is  /unsystematic,  if  not  wasteful ; and  the  number  of 
horses  on  farms  in  New  Jersey  is  one-half  as  great  as  the  number  of 
milcSi  &>ws , while  the  number  in  towns  and  cities  probably  exceeds 
that  bn  farms. 

This  lack  of  experimental  study  in  the  feeding  of  work-horses  may 
be  due  to  the  difficulty  of  accurately  measuring  the  results  of  experi- 
ments, and  to  the  extra  care  and  expense  required  to  secure  uniform 
experimental  conditions. 

In  experiments  with  dairy  animals  the  quantity  and  quality  of  the 
milk  produced  is  a daily  guide  as  to  the  general  effect  of  the  ration 
used ; while  in  those  conducted  with  young  and  growing  stock  the 
amount  and  kind  of  gain  made  furnishes  a fairly  accurate  statement 
of  the  results  secured  from  the  different  methods  of  feeding. 

In  the  work-horse  a product  of  an  entirely  different  character  is 
required ; it  is  not  a gain  in  animal  product  or  weight,  but  rather  a 
maintenance  of  weight  and  vigor  under  conditions  which  permit  of  a 
maximum  production  of  muscular  energy. 

In  a product  of  this  character  the  actual  changes  due  to  differences 
of  feeding  are  difficult  of  measurement.  A rigid  physical  examina- 
tion may  not  discover  considerable  variations  in  the  health  or  vigor 
of  the  animal,  and  an  increase  or  decrease  of  weight  within  narrow 
limits  is  not  conclusive,  while  the  necessary  expenditure  of  muscular 
energy  cannot  be  readily  distinguished  from  that  of  nervous  excite- 
ment. Under  ordinary  circumstances,  too,  the  work  of  the  horse  is 
more  liable  to  sudden  and  extreme  changes  than  that  of  the  cow  or 
pig,  thus  requiring  frequent  changes  in  rations,  or  a greater  expense 
to  secure  the  uniform  and  comparative  conditions  necessary  in  all 
experimental  work. 

2. 

Plan  of  the  Experiment;  Results  Secured. 

The  opinion  that  hay  and  oats  are  peculiarly  suitable  feeds  for 
horses  is  universally  accepted.  In  many  sections  of  New  Jersey  hay 
is  the  main  money  crop.  Oats  is  not  regarded  as  a highly  profitable 
crop  in  any  part  of  the  State,  and  is  raised  mainly  for  horse  feed. 
Under  the  conditions  that  exist,  therefore,  these  feeds,  though  of  un- 
questionable value,  are  expensive. 

In  1890  a number  of  farmers  of  the  State,  acting  on  the  suggestion 


5 


of  the  Station,  substituted  dried  brewers’  grains  for  oats  in  a ration 
for  work-horses.  The  dried  grains  were  cheaper,  pound  for  pound, 
than  the  oats,  and  being  richer  in  the  valuable  nutrients,  protein  and 
fat,  permitted  of  a very  material  reduction  in  the  cost  of  the  ration. 
The  work  performed  by  the  animals  was  quite  as  great,  and  their 
health  and  vigor  quite  as  good,  as  when  oats  constituted  the  main 
part  of  the  ration. 

These  results,  in  connection  with  the  recent  rapid  development  of 
the  business  of  preparing  the  dried  grains,  led  the  Station  to  plan  and 
conduct  an  experiment  in  feeding  work-horses,  in  order  to  secure  more 
exact  data  in  reference  to  their  food  requirements,  and  also  as  to  the 
value  of  dried  brewers’  grains  as  compared  with  oats. 

The  feeds  used  in  the  various  rations  studied  in  this  experiment 
were  analyzed,  thus  making  it  possible  to  study  the  effect  of  different 
amounts  and  proportions  of  the  actual  nutrients  consumed.  The 
actual  comparisons  of  the  effect  of  the  dried  brewers’  grains  and  oats 
are  made,  however,  on  the  basis  of  a pound- for- pound  substitution. 

Through  the  courtesy  of  Mr.  William  F.  Price,  Superintendent  of 
the  New  Brunswick  City  Railway,  the  horses  were  furnished  by  that 
company,  and  the  interest  shown  by  Mr.  Price  in  providing  full 
facilities  for  the  work,  contributed  in  large  measure  to  the  successful 
conduct  of  the  experiment.  The  advantages  were  a relatively  large 
number  of  horses  and  a practical  uniformity  in  their  work. 

The  dried  brewers’  grains  for  the  experiment  were  furnished  by  the 
Long  Island  Drying  Company,  of  Brooklyn ; the  other  feeds  were 
provided  by  the  City  Railway,  in  such  quantities  and  at  such  times  as 
were  desired. 

Beginning  with  July  1st,  the  dried  brewers’  grains  were  fed  to  all 
the  horses  in  the  stable ; with  but  few  exceptions  the  grains  were 
readily  eaten  and  with  apparent  relish.  The  previous  ration  used  at 
the  stable  consisted  of  oats,  ground-feed — corn  and  oats — and  hay ; the 
oats  were  fed  alone  in  the  morning  and  the  ground-feed  and  hay  at 
noon  and  night. 

On  July  12th,  all  the  horses  in  the  stable  were  examined  by  Dr.  E. 
L.  Loblein,  a veterinary  surgeon  of  New  Brunswick,  N.  J.,  and  eight 
animals  which  showed  a sound  constitution  and  vigorous  health,  were 
selected  for  the  experiment.  These  were  numbered  consecutively, 
weighed,  and  divided  according  to  weight  and  age  into  two  lots  of 
four  each.  The  weight  and  age  of  the  respective  animals  were  as 
follows : 


6 


Lot  No.  1.  Lot  No.  2. 


No. 

Age, 

Years. 

Weight, 

Lbs. 

No. 

Age, 

Years. 

Weight, 

Lbs. 

1 

10  

1,075 

0 

6 

1,150 

2 

7 

1,075 

3 

6 

975 

4 

7 

960 

5 

6 

925 

6 

7 

.......  900 

7 

10  

.......  950 

Total  weight 

4,010 

Total  weight 

4,000 

The  oats  ration  which  formed  the  basis  of  comparison  was  prepared 
with  the  idea  of  furnishing  the  nutrients  in  sufficient  amounts  and  in 
good  proportions  for  horses  moderately  worked.  The  dried  brewers’ 
grains  ration  differed  from  the  oats  ration  in  the  proportions,  but  not 
materially  in  the  total  amount  of  nutrients  furnished.  The  propor- 
tions of  feeds  used  in  the  rations  were  as  follows : 


Dried  Brewers’  Grains  Ration. 


Hay 6 pounds. 

Wheat  bran 2 “ 

Corn,  unground 4 “ 

Dried  brewers’  grains 8 “ 


Oats  Ration. 


Hay 6 pounds. 

Wheat  bran 2 “ 

Corn,  unground 4 “ 

Oats 8 “ 


The  daily  rations  were  weighed  by  an  employe  of  the  Station,  but 
were  fed  by  the  stableman  at  times  convenient  for  the  stable,  usually 
at  5 A.  m.,  11a.m.  and  5 p.  m.  ; the  hay  was  given  uncut  at  the  night 
feeding. 

In  each  lot  the  two  heavier  horses  were  fed  15  pounds  and  the 
others  13.5  pounds  per  day  of  the  above  mixture  of  feeds. 

The  daily  work  of  each  horse  consisted  of  at  least  four  trips  of 
about  six  miles  each ; on  Sundays  and  special  holidays  the  trips  were 
increased  to  five  and  sometimes  six,  though  in  all  cases  the  work  of 
the  horses  in  the  experiment  was  increased  proportionately.  Horses 
No.  4 and  No.  5 were  used  in  a team ; the  others  were  used  singly. 
The  work  done  was  considered  moderate,  though  it  was  impracticable 
to  determine  accurately  the  actual  energy  expended. 

The  experiment  proper  continued  three  months,  though  an  interval 
of  twenty  days  occurred  between  the  end  of  the  second  and  the  begin- 
ning of  the  third  periods,  during  which  time  all  the  horses  were  fed 
the  stable  ration.  The  horses  in  lot  No.  1 were  fed  the  dried  brewers’ 
grains  ration  from  July  12th  to  August  11th,  and  from  October  1st 
to  October  31st,  inclusive.  They  were  fed  the  oats  ration  from  August 
12th  to  September  11th.  Lot  No.  2 were  fed  the  oats  ration  from 
July  12th  to  August  11th,  and  from  October  1st  to  October  31st; 
they  were  fed  the  dried  brewers’  grains  ration  from  August  12th  to 


September  11th.  Both  lots  were  fed  the  stable  ration  from  Septem- 
ber 12th  to  September  30th,  inclusive. 

The  following  tables  show  the  weights  of  the  animals  at  the  begin- 
ning and  the  end  of  the  periods  under  experiment : 

First  Period — July  12tli  to  August  11th. 


Lot  No.  2. 

OATS. 


Weights. 


Lot  No.  1. 

DRIED  BREWERS’  GRAINS. 


| Number  of  Horse. 

Weights. 

Gain  or  Loss  for 
31  Days. 

July  12th. 

August  11th. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

1 

1,075 

1,060 

—15 

2 

1,075 

1,060 

—15 

4 

960 

950 

—10 

6 

900 

915 

+15 

Total  loss  for  the  month 25  lbs. 

Average  loss  per  horse 6.25  lbs. 


Total  loss  for  the  month 25  lbs. 

Average  loss  per  horse 6.25  lbs. 


Number  of  Hors 

July  12th. 

August  11th. 

Gain  or  Loss  for 
31  Days. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

0 

1,150 

1,150 

0 

3 

975 

975 

O' 

5 

925 

975 

+50 

7 

950 

990 

+40 

Total  gain  for  the  month 90  lbs. 

Average  gain  per  horse 22.50  lbs. 


Total  gain  for  the  month 90  lbs. 

Average  gain  per  horse 22.50  lbs. 


Second  Period — August  12tli  to  September  11th. 


Lot  No.  1. 
OATS. 

Lot  No.  2. 

DRIED  BREWERS’  GRAINS. 

1 ...  ..... 

Number  of  Horse. 

Weights. 

Gain  or  Loss  for 
31  Days. 

Number  of  Horse. 

Weights. 

Gain  or  Loss  for 
31  Days. 

August  12th. 

September  11th. 

August  12th. 

September  11th. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

1 

1,060 

1,075 

+15 

0 

1,150 

1,150 

0 

2 

1,060 

1,050 

—10 

3 

975 

1,025 

+50 

4 

950 

975 

+25 

5 

975 

950 

—25 

6 

915 

900 

—15 

7 

990 

975 

—15 

Total  gain  for  the  month 

15  lbs. 

Total  gain  for  the  month 

....  10  lbs. 

Average  gain  per  horse 

, 3.75  lbs. 

Average  gain  per  horse 

...  2.5  lbs. 

8 


Period  from  September  13th  to  September  30tli. 


Lot  No.  1. 

STABLE  RATION. 

Lot  No.  2. 

STABLE  RATION. 

Number  of  Horse. 

Weights. 

Gain  or  Loss  for 
19  Days. 

Number  of  Horse. 

Wei| 

*hts. 

Gain  or  Loss  for 
19  Days. 

September  12th. 

September  30th. 

September  12th. 

September  30th. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

1 

1,075 

1,040 

—35 

0 

1,150 

1,110 

—40 

2 

1,050 

1,050 

0 

3 

1,025 

975 

—50 

4 

975 

930 

—45 

5 

950 

930 

—20 

6 

900 

900 

0 

7 

975 

980 

+5 

Total  loss  for  19  davs... 

.....  80  lbs. 

Total  loss  for  19  davs.. 

105  lbs. 

Average  loss  per  horse 

20  lbs. 

Average  loss  per  hcrse 

26.25  lbs. 

Third  Period— October  1st  to  October  31st. 


Lot  No.  1. 

DRIED  BREWERS’  GRAINS. 

Lot  No.  2. 
OATS. 

Weights. 

Weights. 

o 

0) 

in 

J-i 

o 

£ 

in 

Sh 

C 

HH 

sj 

£ 

o 

CO 

3 

<4H 

o 

3® 

CO 

O 

o 

& 

Jh 

O 

X? 

o 

^ 02 
O 
. o3 

<D 

,0 

S-c 

0> 

Fh 

<X> 

Sh  02 
O ^ 

8 

o 

o 

•§« 

a 

$ 

O 

o 

•3° 

£ 

O 

O 

Oeo 

z 

O 

O 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

1 

1,040 

1,120 

+80 

0 

1,110 

1,170 

+60 

2 

1,050 

1,080 

+30 

3 

975 

1,090 

+115* 

4 

930 

1,010 

+80 

5 

930 

970 

+40 

6 

900 

950 

1 

+50 

7 

980 

1,020 

+40 

Total  gain  for  the  month 

...  240  lbs. 

Total  gain  for  the  month 

..  140  lbs. 

Average  gain  per  horse 

...  60  lbs. 

Average  gain  per  horse 

..  46.7  lbs. 

* Horse  No.  3 was  fed  dried  brewers’  grains  from  October  10th  to  October  31st;  his  gain  is 
therefore  not  included  in  the  total  or  average. 


The  weights  at  the  end  of  the  first  period  showed  a gain  for  horse 
No.  6 in  lot  1,  and  for  horses  Nos.  5 and  7 in  lot  2 ; a loss  for  horses 


9 


Nos.  1,  2 and  4 in  lot  1,  and  neither  gain  nor  loss  for  Nos.  0 and  3 
in  lot  2.  With  the  possible  exception  of  Nos.  5 and  7 in  lot  2,  the 
variations  in  weight  were  within  the  limits  of  changes  due  to  natural 
causes  for  horses  of  this  size.  In  fact,  the  weights  secured  were  sur- 
prising in  that  they  showed  no  serious  losses,  and  their  uniformity 
furnished  evidence  of  the  good  character  and  adaptability  of  both 
rations,  as  well  as  of  the  good  management  of  the  horses  during  the 
period,  in  which  the  conditions  other  than  feed  were  extremely  severe  ; 
the  mean  maximum  temperature  for  the  last  twenty  days  was  87.9°. 

In  the  second  period  lot  1 was  fed  the  oats  ration  and  lot  2 the 
dried  brewers’  grains  ration.  The  weights  at  the  end  of  the  period, 
on  September  11th,  were  again  strikingly  uniform.  Horse  No.  3 in 
lot  2 was  the  only  one  that  showed  a difference  in  weight  large 
enough  to  be  chargeable  to  changes  in  the  nutritive  effect  of  the 
rations. 

If  the  differences  in  the  weights  observed  for  both  periods  were 
entirely  chargeable  to  the  rations,  then  oats  are  shown  to  be  slightly 
more  satisfactory  than  dried  brewers’  grains.  Still,  a comparison 
of  the  weights  of  the  horses  of  both  lots,  at  the  beginning  of  the  first 
period  and  at  the  end  of  the  second,  indicates  that  the  differences  may 
be  due  entirely  to  differences  in  the  character  of  the  individual  horses 
rather  than  to  the  feeds  ; for  lot  1,  fed  identically  the  same  as  lot  2, 
shows  a loss  of  10  pounds  for  the  two  months,  due  to  slight  varia- 
tions in  the  weight  of  each  horse  in  the  lot,  while  in  lot  2 there  is  a 
gain  of  100  pounds,  due  to  changes  in  the  weights  of  two  horses  in 
the  first  period  and  of  three  in  the  second. 

At  the  end  of  the  second  period  the  horses  of  both  lots  were  fed  the 
stable  ration  until  October  1st,  in  order  that  this  entire  month  might 
constitute  the  third  period,  thereby  enabling  a comparison  of  the  effect 
of  the  rations  when  conditions,  other  than  feed,  were  as  likely  to  be 
favorable  as  in  any  season  of  the  year,  the  previous  periods  having 
been  very  unfavorable  in  this  respect. 

The  weights  of  the  horses  on  October  1st  showed  a considerable 
loss  during  the  nineteen  days’  feeding  of  the  stable  ration  ; the  greatest 
difference,  an  average  loss  of  26.25  pounds  per  horse,  was  again  shown 
in  lot  2. 

The  conditions  other  than  feed  during  the  third  period  were  unusu- 
ally favorable,  the  weather  was  clear  and  cool,  and  free  from  storms, 
and  the  work  uniform.  Lot  1 were  fed  the  dried  brewers’  grains 


10 


ration  and  lot  2 the  oats  ration  for  this  period.  Horse  No.  3 in  lot 
2 developed  a sore  on  his  right  shoulder,  and  a necessary  surgical 
operation  on  October  10th  incapacitated  him  for  work  for  the 
remainder  of  the  period. 

The  weights  recorded  on  October  31st  showed  a total  gain  of  240* 
pounds  for  lot  1,  or  an  average  gain  of  60  pounds  for  each  horse  on 
the  dried  brewers'  grains  ration.  The  lowest  gain  was  30  pounds  for 
No.  2,  and  the  highest,  80  pounds,  for  both  Nos.  1 and  4.  In  lot  2 
there  was  a total  gain  of  160  pounds  for  three  horses,  or  an  average 
gain  per  horse  of  1^6.7  pounds  on  the  oats  ration.  In  this  period, 
therefore,  when  owing  to  favorable  conditions  actual  gains  were  to  be 
expected,  the  increase  in  weight  from  the  dried  brewers’  grains  ration 
was  greater  by  13.3  pounds  per  horse  than  that  from  the  oats  ration. 

The  weight  of  horse  No.  3 was  the  same  at  the  beginning  of  the 
first  and  third  periods,  his  weight  having  remained  stationary  on  the 
oats  ration,  and  the  gain  made  on  the  dried  brewers’  grains  ration 
being  lost  on  the  stable  ration  in  which  oats  was  the  chief  feed.  He 
was  fed  after  October  10th,  6 pounds  per  day  of  dried  brewers’  grains 
in  addition  to  a liberal  ration  of  hay,  and  gained  while  idle  115 
pounds  in  20  days. 

The  following  tabulation  shows  the  weights  of  the  horses  at  the 
beginning  and  at  the  end  of  the  experiment : 


Lot  No.  1. 

FED  DRIED  BREWERS’  GRAINS  62  DAYS 
AND  OATS  31  DAYS. 


OJ 

Weights. 

Number  of  Horsi 

July  12th. 

October  31st. 

Gain  or  Loss  for 
93  Days. 

1 

lbs. 

1,075 

lbs. 

1,120 

lbs. 

+45 

2 

1,075 

1,080 

+5 

4 

960 

1,010 

+50 

6 

900 

950 

+50 

Total  gain - 150  lbs. 

Average  gain  per  horse 37.5  lbs. 


Total  gain - 150  lbs. 

Average  gain  per  horse 37.5  lbs. 


Lot  No.  2. 

FED  OATS  62  DAYS  AND  DRIED  BREWERS’ 
GRAINS  31  DAYS. 


Number  of  Horse. 

Weights. 

Gain  or  Loss  for 
93  Days. 

July  12th. 

October  31st. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

0 

1,150 

1,170 

+20 

3 

975 

5 

925 

970 

+45 

7 

950 

1,020 

+70 

Total  gain 135  lbs. 

Average  gain  per  horse 45  lbs. 


Total  gain 135  lbs. 

Average  gain  per  horse 45  lbs. 


11 


On  October  31st,  after  more  than  three  months  of  severe  labor,  a 
gain  is  shown  greater  than  could  be  expected  from  ordinary  causes- 
The  gain  from  lot  1 averages  37.5  pounds  per  horse ; for  lot  2,  45 
pounds  per  horse,  No.  3 not  included,  though  in  the  two  periods 
under  experiment  he  showed  a decided  gain  when  fed  the  dried 
brewers’  grains  ration,  and  no  gain  from  the  oats  ration. 

The  physical  examination  of  the  horses  was  repeated  by  Dr.  Loblein 
at  the  end  of  the  experiment.  He  reported  as  follows  : “ I have 

watched  the  horses  closely  from  the  beginning  to  the  end  of  the 
experiment  and  have  failed  to  discover  any  ill  effects  from  the  use  of 
dried  brewers’  grains.  The  horses  fed  the  grains  have  been  as  healthy 
as  I have  ever  known  them  to  be.” 

The  results  of  this  experiment  indicate — 

1.  That  in  both  rations  the  nutrients  furnished  were  sufficient  to 
maintain  the  weight  of  the  animals  under  average  work  ; and 

2.  That  on  the  whole , a pound  of  dried  brewers’  grains  was  quite  as 
useful  as  a pound  of  oats  in  a ration  for  work-horses. 


3. 

Chemical  Composition  of  the  Rations  Used. 

The  two  rations  used  were  not  intended  to  furnish  equal  amounts 
and  proportions  of  digestible  nutrients.  It  was,  however,  the  inten- 
tion that  the  composition  of  the  oats  ration  should  correspond  as 
nearly  as  possible  with  the  standard  ration  as  given  by  German 
authorities  for  moderately  worked  horses  of  1,000  pounds  live  weight, 
viz  : 


Digestible. 


Fat, 

Protein, 

Carbohydrates, 

Nutritive 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Ratio. 

0.6 

1.8 

11.2 

1 to  7. 

The  analyses  of  the  feeds  used  were  made  after  the  experiment 
began,  hence  the  actual  composition  differed  slightly  from  the 
standard : 


12 


Analyses  of  Feeds. 


Station  Number. 

FEED. 

POUNDS  PER  HUNDRED  OF 

PERCENTAGE  OF 

Water. 

Crude  Fat. 

1 

Crude  Fiber. 

Crude  Ash. 



Carbohydrates. 

Crude  Protein. 

Albuminoid 

Protein. 

Nitrogen. 

Phosphoric 

Acid. 

Potash. 

732 

Timothy  Hav 

8.64 

2.08 

28.65 

4.90 

48.90 

6.83 

6.24 

1.09 

0.28 

0.96 

730 

Wheat  Bran 

11.45 

4.50 

7.92 

7.03 

52.12 

16.98 

14.23 

2.72 

3.60 

1.50 

729 

Corn 

13.46 

4.47 

1.43 

1.29 

69.74 

9.61 

9.61 

1.54 

0.60 

0.32 

728 

Oats 

10.80 

5.52 

8.54 

3.81 

59.05 

12.28 

10.57 

1.97 

0.79 

0.49 

731 

Dried  Brewers’  Grains 

9.90 

5.54 

13.32 

3.50 

44.03 

23.71 

21.14 

3.79 

1.05 

0.09 

The  above  analyses  show  these  feeds  to  have  been  up  to  the  standard 
in  quality.  The  dried  brewers’  grains  differ  from  the  oats  mainly  in 
showing  a much  higher  content  of  crude  protein  and  a lower  content 
of  carbohydrates,  including  fiber.  The  fat  is  practically  the  same  in 
each.  On  the  basis  of  dry  matter,  the  dried  brewers’1  grains  contain 
86  per  cent,  more  crude  protein  than  the  oats ; the  percentage  of  true 
protein  or  albuminoids  is  also  proportionately  greater  in  the  dried 
brewers’  grains.  These  feeds  also  differ  radically  in  the  proportions 
and  amounts  of  their  ash  constituents.  The  brewers’  grains  contain 
less  than  one- tenth  of  one  per  cent,  of  potash,  the  oats  about  one- half 
of  one  per  cent.,  while  the  phosphoric  acid  is  one-third  greater  in  the 
grains  than  in  the  oats. 

The  daily  rations  fed  on  the  basis  of  1,000  pounds  live  weight  con- 
sisted of  6 pounds  of  hay  and  15  pounds  of  feeds,  according  to  the 
proportions  given  on  page  6.  The  following  tabulation  shows  the 
digestible  nutrients  furnished  by  each  ration : 


Dried  Brewers’  Grains  Ration. 


Fat, 

v Lbs. 

6 lbs.  hay 0.03 

24  lbs.  wheat  bran 0.05 

4f  lbs.  corn 0.12 

84  lbs.  dried  brewers’  grains 0.38 


Protein,  Carbohydrates,. 
Lbs.  Lbs. 

0.25  2.37 

0.27  0.84 

0.32  2.87 

1.73  3.77 


Nutritive  ratio,  1 : 4.4. 


0.58 


2.57 


9.85 


13 


Oats  Ration. 

Fat,  Protein,  Carbohydrates, 

Lbs.  Lbs.  Lbs. 


6 lbs.  hay 0.03  0.25  2.37 

21  lbs.  wheat  bran 0.05  0.27  0.84 

41  lbs.  corn 0.12  0.32  2.87 

8f-  lbs.  oats 0.37  0.92  4.09 


0.57  1.76  10.17 

Nutritive  ratio,  1 : 6.6. 

The  dried  brewers’  grains  ration  contained  13.0  pounds  of  digestible 
dry  matter,  and  the  oats  ration  12.5  pounds.  The  difference  is  due 
mainly  to  the  amount  of  protein,  the  former  containing  46  per  cent, 
more  than  the  latter ; the  fat — a very  essential  nutrient  in  a ration 
for  work-horses — and  the  carbohydrates  are  practically  identical  in 
both.  The  oats  ration  contains  1.1  pounds  and  the  dried  brewers’ 
grains  ration  0.6  of  a pound  less  dry  matter  than  the  standard,  this 
loss  falling  chiefly  on  the  carbohydrates,  thus  making  the  nutritive 
ratios  1 : 6.6  and  1 : 4.4,  instead  of  1 : 7,  as  in  the  standard.  The  stable 
ration,  which  was  fed  from  September  12th  to  30th,  inclusive,  con- 
sisted of  6 pounds  of  hay,  2 of  wheat  bran,  4 of  oats  and  8 of  corn 
and  oats  feed.  It  furnished  1.51  pounds  of  protein,  0.46  of  fat  and 
10.56  of  carbohydrates,  and  had  a nutritive  ratio  of  1 : 7.5.  The  total 
amount  of  digestible  nutrients  was  12.53  pounds,  or  practically  the 
same  as  in  the  oats  ration. 

It  has  already  been  shown  that  the  horses  on  the  oats  and  dried 
brewers’  grains  rations  fully  maintained  their  weights  under  unfavor- 
able conditions  and  increased  in  weight  under  favorable  conditions. 
It  was  also  shown  that  under  favorable  conditions  there  was  a loss  of 
weight  on  the  stable  ration,  that  is  : 

1.  That  rations  which  contained  at  least  as  much  of  fat  and  'protein , 
but  less  of  carbohydrates  than  the  standard , maintained  and  even  in- 
creased the  weight  of  the  animals  ; and 

2.  A ration  that  contained  less  fat  and  protein  but  more  of  carbo- 
hydrates than  either  of  the  others , resulted  in  a decrease  in  weight. 

These  results  verify  the  usefulness  of  the  standard  in  reference  to 
the  amounts  of  protein  and  fat,  and  also  indicate  that  the  effect  of 
these  nutrients  cannot  be  attained  by  a substitution  for  them  of  the 
carbohydrates.  There  was  evidently  a waste  of  protein  in  the  dried 
brewers’  grains  ration,  since  the  oats  ration,  containing  30  per  cent, 
less  protein  but  practically  the  same  fat  and  carbohydrates,  gave  rela- 
tively as  good  results. 


14 


4. 

Economy  of  the  Dried  Brewers'  Grains  Ration. 

By  actual  trial  a pound  of  dried  brewers’  grains  was  shown  to  be 
quite  as  useful  as  a pound  of  oats  in  a ration  for  work- horses.  A 
comparison  of  the  composition  of  the  feeds  indicates  that  the  reason 
for  this  result  lies  in  the  fact  that  the  dried  brewers’  grains  furnish 
more  of  the  valuable  digestible  nutrients  than  the  oats. 

The  next  question  which  is  of  importance  to  the  practical  feeder  is : 
Will  it  pay  to  substitute  grains  for  oats? 

This  point  admits  of  discussion  from  two  standpoints — 1.  The 
economy  of  a pound-for-pound  substitution  as  in  the  experiment,  and 
2.  A substitution  based  upon  the  composition. 

The  actual  cost,  per  ton,  of  the  feeds  used  in  the  experiment  was, 
hay,  $18 ; wheat  bran,  $22 ; corn,  $22  ; oats,  $30,  and  dried  brewers’ 
grains,  $18.  The  amount  and  cost  of  the  feeds  consumed  by  the  four 
horses  in  each  lot,  per  period  of  31  days,  are  shown  below. 


Oats  Ration. 

Dried  Brewers’ 

Grains  Ration. 

Lbs. 

Cost. 

Lbs. 

Cost. 

Hay 

744 

$6  69 

Hay 

744 

$6  69 

Wheat  bran 

252 

2 77 

Wheat  bran 

252 

2 77 

Corn 

505 

5 56 

Corn 

505 

5 56 

Oats 

1,010 

15  15 

Oats 

1,010 

9 09 

P0  17 

$24  11 

Cost  per  horse  per  day. 

24.3  cents. 

19.4  cents 

Saving  per  day  per  horse  from  the  use  of  dried  brewers’  grains... 

. 4.9  cents 

The  substitution  of  dried  brewers’  grains  for  oats  resulted  not  only 
in  a maintenance  of  the  weight  of  the  animals  under  equivalent  work, 
but  in  a saving  of  4.9  cents  per  day  per  horse,  or  25  per  cent,  of  the 
cost  of  the  ration.  This  saving,  though  appearing  small  in  itself, 
means  considerable  in  the  aggregate ; if  applied  to  the  forty  horses  at  the 
car  stables,  it  would  represent  a saving  of  $1.96  per  day,  or  over  $700 
per  year,  a sum  sufficient  to  pay  the  interest  on  a capital  of  $12,000. 

Of  course,  the  saving  in  any  case  depends  upon  the  relation  between 
the  cost  of  the  grains  and  the  cost  of  the  oats.  The  cost  of  the  grains 
per  ton  in  car  lots  has  been  fixed  at  $16  for  the  summer,  at  $17  for  the 
autumn,  and  at  $18  for  the  winter  and  spring  months.  The  cost  of 
freight  and  handling  to  point  of  consumption  would  probably  add,  on 
the  average,  $2  per  ton.  The  manufacturers  of  the  grains  claim  that 
these  prices  will  not  be  materially  increased. 


15 


Variations  in  the  cost  to  the  consumer  will  doubtless  occur;  the 
following  table  of  equivalents  shows  under  what  conditions  of  cost 
the  substitution  of  one  for  the  other  may  be  profitable : 


Table  of  Equivalents. 


Dried  brewers’  grains  at 

it  U U it 

$18  00  per  ton  — oats  at 

19  00  “ — ‘ “ 

....  m “ 

...  30  “ 

per 

u 

bushel 

ii 

u u a c 

20  00  “ — “ “ 

it 

U 

u u t cc 

22  00  “ — “ “ 

....  33  “ 

u 

u 

« a 

24  00  “ — “ “ 

....  36  “ 

u 

U 

Assuming  $24  per  ton  as  a maximum  for  dried  brewers’  grains,  they 
are  then  as  cheap  as  the  oats  at  36  cents  per  bushel,  which  is  certainly 
a minimum  price  to  the  consumer  for  oats  of  good  quality.  An  increase 
of  $1  per  ton  on  the  grains  is  balanced  by  an  addition  of  1J  cents 
per  bushel  for  oats. 

Another  point  which  should  be  regarded,  especially  by  farmers  who 
make  the  exchange,  is  the  relative  content  and  value  of  the  fertilizer 
constituents  contained  in  these  feeds.  A ton  of  oats  sold  from  the 
farm  carries  away,  on  an  average,  37  pounds  of  nitrogen,  15  of  phos- 
phoric acid  and  12  of  potash.  A ton  of  dried  brewers’  grains  will 
bring  to  the  farm  77  pounds  of  nitrogen,  19  pounds  of  phosphoric 
acid  and  2 pounds  of  potash ; a gain  to  the  farm,  by  the  exchange,  of 
40  pounds  of  nitrogen  and  4 of  phosphoric  acid,  and  a loss  of  10 
pounds  of  potash,  or  a net  gain  of  $6.19  on  the  basis  of  their  fertiliz- 
ing values.  The  gain  would  be  proportionately  the  same  if  the  feeds 
were  used  on  the  farm,  since  under  uniform  conditions  of  feeding  the 
same  relative  amounts  of  the  constituents  would  be  retained  in  the 
manure.  At  the  same  cost  per  ton  for  the  two  feeds,  therefore,  there 
would  be  a considerable  gain  in  fertility  by  a pound-for-pound  substi- 
tution of  the  dried  brewers’  grains  for  the  oats. 

A study  of  the  methods  of  feeding  among  farmers  shows  that  the 
usual  custom  for  horses  performing  ordinary  work  is  to  give  about 
twelve  pounds  of  grain  per  day,  with  as  much  hay  as  the  animals 
will  eat.  The  grain  consists  usually  of  corn  or  oats  alone  or  the  two 
mixed,  and  is  fed  ground  or  unground,  as  the  case  may  be. 

Careful  inquiry  indicates  that  the  following  tabulation  of  rations^ 
would  represent  average  conditions  : 


^No.  1 hay,  12  pounds;  oats,  12  pounds 

*To.  2 “ 12  “ corn,  12  “ 

_ ( corn,  6 “ 

N0'3 “ 12  “ oats,*  6 “ 


The  variations  in  the  actual  nutrients  furnished  by  these  rations, 
using  both  timothy  and  clover,  are  shown  in  the  following  table. 


Digestible. 

/ * \ Total  Digestible 

Fat,  Protein,  Carbohydrates,  Dry  Matter,  Nutritive 
Lbs.  Lbs.  Lbs.  Lbs.  Ratio. 

Ration  1 { Timothy 0.58  1.61  11.76  13.85  1:8 

'1  Clover 0.67  2.18  11.23  13.98  1:6 

Ration  2.  1 Timot1^ °'51  123  13*70  15‘4i  1 : 12  2 

l Clover 0.60  1.80  13.17  15.57  1 : 8.1 

RationS  {Timothy 0.55  1.42  12.73  14.70  1:9.8 

a ion  . { clover 0.64  1.99  12.20  14.73  1 : 6.9 


All  of  the  rations  contain  more  digestible  dry  matter  than  the  Ger- 
man standard  demands.  They  also  contain  more  than  the  oats  ration 
fed  in  the  experiment,  which  maintained  the  weight  of  the  horses 
under  moderate  work  In  the  clover  hay  rations,  the  different 
nutrients  are  in  good  proportion,  except  in  No.  2,  where  corn  is  the 
grain  used.  The  rations  containing  timothy  hay  are,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  No.  1,  where  oats  is  the  only  grain  used,  poorer  in  protein 
and  fat  than  the  standard,  or  than  was  found  necessary  in  the 
experiment. 

The  chief  criticisms  of  these  rations  as  a whole  are,  therefore — 

1.  That  they  are  too  rich  in  carbohydrates,  and 

2.  That  in  their  preparation  the  character  and  composition  of  the 
grains  used  are  disregarded , thus  giving  widely  different  proportions  of 
the  various  nutrients  for  the  same  work. 

The  same  criticisms  apply  to  the  rations  for  horses  employed  in 
government  work.  These  rations  consist  of  14  pounds  of  hay  and  12 
pounds  of  corn,  oats  or  barley  per  day,  with  the  addition  of  3 pounds 
of  oats  for  heavy  work.  The  corn  ration  for  ordinary  work  contains 
0.53  pounds  of  fat,  1.31  of  protein  and  12.74  of  carbohydrates,  with 
a nutritive  ratio  of  1 : 12.2.  The  oats  ration  contains  0.60  pounds  of 
fat,  1.68  of  protein  and  14.68  of  carbohydrates,  with  a nutritive  ratio 
of  1 : 8.5.  If  these  rations  give  equally  good  results,  then  either  the 
carbohydrates  may  be  substituted  for  protein  and  fat,  or  there  is  a 
sufficiency  of  protein  and  fat  in  the  corn  ration,  and  a consequent  waste 
of  a part  of  all  the  nutrients  in  the  oats  ration,  and  of  a part  of  the 
carbohydrates  in  the  corn  ration. 


17 


While  it  is  true  that  in  a ration  for  work-horses  the  carbohydrates 
may,  in  part  at  least,  substitute  the  fat,  they  cannot  take  the  place  of 
the  protein ; hence,  in  making  a substitution  of  feeds  for  the  same 
works,  if  widely  varying  amounts  of  fat  and  protein  are  provided, 
there  results  either  a loss  of  weight  by  the  animal  or  a waste  of  food. 
The  examination  of  the  rations  used  in  the  experiment,  as  well  as 
those  in  common  use,  shows  that  in  what  are  regarded  as  the  best 
rations,  the  fat  approaches  0.6  of  a pound  and  the  protein  1.8  pounds 
per  day,  while  the  carbohydrates  range  from  10.17  to  14.68  pounds. 
It  seems  clear,  therefore,  that  in  the  preparation  of  rations  for  work- 
horses, particular  care  should  be  exercised  in  reference  to  the  com- 
pounds protein  and  fat.  The  following  daily  rations  furnish  as  much 
fat,  and  slightly  more  protein  than  the  oats  ration  of  the  experi- 
ment, and  practically  the  same  amounts  of  these  constituents  as  are 
furnished  by  the  rations  now  in  general  use  by  the  farmers  of  the 
State ; the  carbohydrates  furnished  are  much  less,  and  with  the  excep- 
tion of  No.  4,  are  practically  identical  in  each  case : 

Furnishing  Digestible 

Carbo- 


Ration. 

Fat, 

Protein. 

hydrates, 

Nutritive 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Ratio. 

1 

( Timothy  hay 

Dried  brewers’  grains, 

10  lbs.  ' 

) 

No.  1 < 

6 

U 

\ 0.55 

1.85 

10.05 

1 : 6.2 

1 

[ Corn.... 

4 

U 

I 

1 

f Timothy  hay 

Dried  brewers’  grains, 

6 

1 

No.  2 < 

6 

[ 0.58 

1.84 

9.42 

1:5.9 

1 

l Corn 

6 

“ J 

1 

f Clover  hay 

10 

“ I 

1 

CO 

o 

Dried  brewers’  grains, 

3 

it  \ 

- 0.53 

1.85 

9.64 

1:6 

[ Corn 

6 

“ J 

1 

1 

r Clover  hay 

6 

“ 1 

l 

No.  4 \ 

Dried  brewers’  grains, 

5 

« 1 

► 0.57 

1.90 

8.72 

1 : 5.3 

( Corn 6 


Any  of  these  rations  is  much  cheaper  than  the  dried  brewers7  grains 
ration  used  in  the  experiment,  at  the  same  cost  of  feeds  as  then  used 
and  with  clover  hay  at  $12  per  ton.  The  most  expensive  ration 
is  No.  1,  costing  18.8  cents  per  day,  and  the  least  expensive,  No.  4, 
costing  14.7  cents.  Theoretically  these  should  give  quite  as  good 
results,  under  similar  conditions  of  season  and  work,  as  were  secured 
from  the  experimental  rations.  Where  horses  average  over  1,000 
pounds  in  weight  the  quantity  of  each  of  the  feeds  should  be  propor- 
tionately increased.  If  it  is  desirable  to  have  more  bulk  than  is  here 
given,  particularly  for  winter  rations,  cut  straw  may  be  added  to  the 
feeds  used  ; thus  increasing  the  carbohydrates. 


18 


The  chief  advantages  of  these  rations  to  farmers  are,  however,  that 
their  use  permits  first  of  a saving  of  timothy  hay,  a profitable  money- 
crop  in  many  sections,  and  of  clover  hay,  particularly  useful  for  dairy 
cows  or  sheep ; and  second,  it  permits  of  the  sale  of  oats,  where  for 
various  reasons  it  may  be  advisable  to  raise  them  though  not  ordin- 
arily profitable.  A saving  of  six  pounds  of  hay  in  a daily  ration  means 
over  one  ton  per  horse,  per  year ; the  saving  in  the  substitution  of 
dried  brewers7  grains  for  oats  has  already  been  discussed  on  page  14. 

In  many  cases  it  may  not  be  convenient  to  secure  dried  brewers’ 
grains.  Rations  that  will  permit  relatively  the  same  savings  may  be 


made  up  from  the  concentrated 

feeds  that  have  already  been  proved 

useful  in  practice,  i.  e. — 

6 lbs.  clover  liay, 

or 

6 lbs.  timothy  hay, 

6 “ corn, 

6 “ corn, 

4 “ wheat  bran, 

5 “ wheat  bran, 

1J  “ linseed  meal, 

H “ linseed  meal. 

Statistics  as  to  methods  of  feeding  horses  have  been  secured  from 
street  railway  companies  in  New  York  City  and  elsewhere,  and  from 
establishments  where  heavy  horses  are  used.  These  show  that  in  all 
cases  the  daily  rations  per  1,000  pounds  live  weight,  and  consisting 
entirely  of  hay,  corn  and  oats,  furnish  practically  the  same  amounts  of 
fat  and  protein  as  are  contained  in  those  indicated  in  this  bulletin,  but 
they  vary  widely  in  the  proportions  and  amounts  of  carbohydrates 
furnished.  It  is  believed  that  rations  prepared  in  accordance  with 
the  suggestions  above  given,  would  in  these  establishments,  too,  result 
not  only  in  a greater  economy  of  food  constituents,  but  in  an  actual 
saving  in  cost. 

5. 

The  Composition  of  Wet  and  Dried  Brewers’  Grains. 

Methods  of  Drying. 

The  material  known  as  brewers’  grains  is,  as  the  name  indicates,  a 
by-product  from  the  manufacture  of  malt  liquors,  and  consists  of  the 
residue  from  the  extraction  of  the  germinated  grain,  usually  barley, 
with  hot  water.  It  contains,  together  with  the  husk  of  the  original 
grain  and  some  unconverted  carbohydrates,  a large  amount  of  fatty 
and  albuminous  substance,  upon  which  its  value  depends.  This 
product,  as  discharged  from  the  brewery,  is  sweet  and  fit  for  food  for 
cattle,  for  which  purpose  it  meets  with  considerable  demand.  It  is, 
however,  in  a very  wet  condition,  containing  about  75  per  cent,  of 
water,  which  renders  it  extremely  liable  to  fermentation  and  putre- 


19 


faction,  whereby  its  fitness  for  food  is  diminished  or  destroyed.  To* 
obviate  this  loss  to  producer  and  consumer,  schemes  have  been  devised 
in  the  past  to  remove  the  water  to  such  an  extent  as  to  prevent  these 
destructive  processes  before  they  have  begun ; and  renewed  activity 
in  this  direction  is  noted  at  the  present  day  with  considerable  promise 
of  success. 

The  utility  of  drying  the  grains  is  undoubted,  since,  by  proper 
drying,  they  are  preserved  in  their  original  sweet  condition,  with 
keeping  qualities  equal  to  any  of  the  various  feeds.  The  distance  to 
which  they  may  be  transported  is  therefore  unlimited,  and  at  the  same 
time  the  reduction  in  weight  by  the  removal  of  over  one  thousand 
four  hundred  pounds  of  water  from  every  ton  effects  a corresponding 
reduction  in  the  transportation  charges.  A wider  market  is  thus  opened 
to  the  producer,  and  feeders,  who,  by  reason  of  distance,  freights,  etc., 
are  unable  to  use  wet  grains  at  all,  find  the  same  material  in  a dried 
condition  within  their  reach.  Thus  prepared  they  furnish  nutrients 
as  cheaply  at  $20  per  ton  as  the  wet  grains  at  twelve  cente  per  bushel, 
with  the  further  advantage,  when  carting  and  handling  are  considered^ 
of  concentration  to  one*fourth  the  weight. 

In  a feeding  experiment  with  dairy  cows,  conducted  by  this  Station 
in  1884,  it  was  shown  that  practically  as  good  a flow  of  milk  followed 
the  use  of  the  dried  grains  as  of  the  wet,  and  this  conclusion  has  been 
verified  by  the  experience  of  practical  feeders.  At  the  same  time  the 
health  of  the  animals  and  the  quality  of  the  product  are  not  impaired, 
as  is  frequently  the  case  by  the  improper  use  of  the  wet  grains. 

In  order  to  study  the  quality  and  uniformity  of  the  dried  grains, 
the  losses  by  drying,  etc.,  the  Station  secured  eight  samples  of  the 
dried  grains,  representing  the  various  commercial  processes  now  in 
practical  operation,  and,  for  comparison,  took  a sample  of  the  wet 
grains  from  each  of  five  carloads  consigned  by  the  Farmers’  Feed 
Company,  of  New  York  City,  to  Mr.  Benjamin  S.  Letson,  of  Stelton, 
a dealer  in  this  article. 

In  three  instances  the  condition  of  the  latter  was  excellent,  and  in 
the  other  two  not  bad,  one  having  an  acid  odor  and  the  other  a slight 
odor  of  putrefaction,  which,  however,  was  not  sufficient  to  affect  its 
analysis.  Weighed  portions  of  each  lot  were  preserved  without  delay 
by  careful  drying  at  a temperature  not  exceeding  130°  F.  The 
results  of  the  analysis  of  these  and  of  the  dried  grains  are  given  in 
tabular  form  on  page  20,  showing  the  composition  of  these  materials 
as  received  in  the  laboratory. 


COMPOSITION  OF  THE  SAMPLES  AS  RECEIVED. 


20 


•qsRioj 

0.06 

0.11 

0.12 

0.06 

0.09 

0.08 

0.08 

0.06 

•qsBjoj 

0.03 

0.02 

0.02 

0.02 

0.01 

•pioy  ouoqdsoqj 

0.79 

0.95 

0.91 

1.35 

1.05 

0.94 

1.17 

1.54 

•pioy  ouoqdsoq<i 

0.23 

0.25 

0.24 

0.27 

0.24 

•uaSoniN  Piox 

3.21 

3.07 

3.00 

4.16 

3.79 

3.05 

3.18 

4.09 

•uaSoxqK  iiqoj, 

1.24 

1.03 

0.84 

0.99 

1.16 

•uaSoJiiN 

piouxranqfy 

3.17 

3.00 
2.97 
3.89 
3.38 
2.80 
3.16 

4.01 

•naSoiii^ 

piouimnqty 

1.17 

1.01 

0.83 

0.97 

1.15 

•S8}BipXqoqa,80 

44.98 

49.20 
49.36 

37.21 
44.03 
49.25 
46.41 
39.66 

•saiRjpXqoqiRO 

13.05 

12.38 

12.97 

10.85 

11.01 

•qsy  apmo 

3.41 

4.15 

3.90 

4.43 
3.50 
3.47 

3.43 
4.31 

•qsy  apnao 

0.81 

0.92 

0.84 

0.92 

0.93 

•npjoij  apruo 

20.06 

19.21 

18.74 

25.98 

23.71 

19.08 

19.88 

25.56 

•nppjj  apmo 

7.78 

6.41 

5.24 
6.21 

7.24 

•jaqij  apruo 

]5.88 

13.11 

13.25 

13.28 

13.32 

13.68 

13.50 

14.56 

•■mqx,*  apmo 

2.80 

3.49 

3.35 

3.40 

3.40 

•TBtf  apmo 

6.16 

6.30 

6.20 

7.36 

5.54 

5.97 

5.65 

7.29 

•1M  apmo 

2.58 

2.05 

1.57 

1.82 

1.92 

J8JBAV 

9.51 

8.03 

8.55 

11.74 

9.90 

8.55 

11.13 

8.62 

72.98 

74.75 

76.03 

76.80 

75.50 

DRIED  BREAVERS’  GRAINS. 

Empire  Dairy  Feed  Company 

Hill  Drying  Company 

Long  Island  Drying  Company 

National  Feed  Company 

02 

z 

< 

Pi 

o 

"02 

Pi 

H 

>: 

W 

Pi 

M 

Ei 

Farmers’  Feed  Company 

•jaqranM  uotpis 

QOOOOCOCOOOO 

Is  oo  oo  oo  h 

uaqran^  uoipis 

10  0 0 10 

CD  O OO  OO  O 

l>  I>  I>  O 

COMPOSITION  OF  THE  DRY  MATTER. 


21 


•qs^OJ 

G.07 

0.12 

0.13 

0.07 

0.10 

0.08 

0.10 

0.07 

•ppy  Duoxidsoqj 

j 

0.87 

1.03 

0.99 

1.52 

1.17 

1.03 

1.31 

1.68 

•naSojji^  ibjox  1 

lO^OOH^^OOf' 

iq  co  cj  i>  cj  w »o 

CO  CO  CC  Tjl  rjj  cd  CO  TjJ 

•uoSojixsr 

piouiumqiy 

3.51 

3.27 

3.25 

4.40 

3.76 

3.06 

3.55 

4.38 

•soj'Bjp^qoqi'BO 

49.71 

53.50 

53.98 

42.16 

48.88 

53.85 

52.23 

43.40 

•qsy  apaio 

3.76 

4.51 

4.26 

5.02 

3.88 

3.79 

3.85 

4.72 

•ut8?ojj  apnio 

22.17 

20.89 

20.50 

29.43 

26.31 

20.87 

22.37 

27.97 

•JtaqM  apruo 

17.55 

14.25 

14.48 

15.05 

14.78 

14.96 

15.19 

15.93 

•psx  apruo 

6.81 

6.85 

6.78 

8.34 
6.15 
6.53 

6.35 
7.98 

•qsBioj 

0.12 

0.08 

0.08 

0.07 

0.05 

•pioy  oxjoqdsoqj 

0.83 

0.97 

0.99 

1.15 

0.98 

•aoSojpM  psiox 

4.60 

4.06 

3.50 

4.28 

4.73 

•uaSoaitN 

piomumqiv 

4.34 

3.99 

3.46 

4.17 

4.71 

•saiBipXqoqiBO 

48.30 

49.02 

54.09 

46.76 

44.94 

•qsy  9pniQ 

2.98 
3.62 
3.52 

3.98 
3.80 

•upiojj  aptuo 

28.77 

25.40 

21.85 

26.75 

29.55 

•jaqij  apiuo 

10.39 

13.83 

13.98 

14.66 

13.89 

apruo 

9.56 
8.13 

6.56 
7.85 
7.82 

H = = : = 


•jaqmnx  uoiibis  l§  § « « ® 


22 


An  inspection  of  the  table  discloses  at  once  the  excessive  water  con- 
tent of  the  wet  grains,  and  the  richness  of  both  wet  and  dried  grains 
in  albuminoids  and  fat.  A decided  variation,  however,  will  be  noticed 
in  their  composition.  In  the  dried  grains  the  content  of  water  varies 
from  8 to  nearly  12  per  cent.,  while  the  protein  and  fat  vary  from 
18.7  to  26  per  cent.,  and  from  5.6  to  7.4  per  cent.,  respectively.  But 
this  should  by  no  means  be  considered  a serious  lack  of  uniformity, 
for  all  vegetable  material  varies  to  a greater  or  less  degree.  Wheat 
flour  shows  a variation  in  moisture  of  from  8.2  to  13.6  per  cent.,  and 
wheat  bran  from  7.4  to  15.8  per  cent.,  while  so  uniform  a product  as 
corn  meal  is  considered  to  be  varies  from  8.0  to  27.4  per  cent,  of 
moisture. 

The  variations  in  moisture  in  these  materials,  however,  are  almost 
always  accompanied  by  corresponding  variations  in  the  constituents 
of  the  dry  matter,  the  composition  of  which  is  practically  uniform. 
The  latter  variations,  therefore,  usually  disappear  when  the  analyses 
are  calculated  to  the  basis  of  water-free  material.  The  tables  on 
page  21,  in  which  this  calculation  has  been  performed,  show  that 
with  grains  this  is  not  the  case.  On  the  contrary,  the  samples  now 
range  from  20.5  to  28.0  per  cent,  of  protein,  and  from  6.2  to  8.3  per 
cent,  of  fat,  and  the  high  protein  in  almost  every  case  is  accompanied 
by  the  high  fat.  In  the  wet  grains,  calculated  in  the  same  manner, 
a corresponding  variation  exists,  the  protein  and  fat  increasing 
together,  the  one  from  21.9  to  29.6  per  cent,  and  the  other  from  6.6 
to  9.6  per  cent.  Grains  of  this  higher  composition  are  of  but  recent 
occurrence.  High  amounts  of  both  protein  and  fat  were  first  noted 
by  this  Station  in  No.  568,  a sample  of  dry  grains  analyzed  in  1890, 
in  which  9.5  per  cent,  of  the  dry  matter  was  fat  and  29.1  per  cent, 
protein.  Previously  to  this,  a high  fat  was  always  compensated  for 
by  a low  protein,  or  vice  versa,  and,  in  general,  the  composition  of 
grains,  both  wet  and  dry,  corresponded  closely  to  the  lower  figures 
here  given.  This  higher  composition  is  undoubtedly  due  to  a differ- 
ence of  process  in  the  brewery,  or  an  admixture  of  other  grain  than 
barley — possibly  corn. 

It  certainly  is  not  due  to  any  difference  in  the  drying  processes  of 
the  different  manufacturers,  since  samples  of  both  high  and  low  com- 
position were  received  from  the  same  drying  plant ; nor  can  any  pro- 
cess be  accused  of  producing  a variable  product  through  its  own 
defects,  for  a product  just  as  variable  was  produced  by  the  process  of 


23 


the  laboratory,  which,  it  is  believed,  had  no  defects.  The  variations 
in  the  composition  of  the  dried  grains  would  seem,  therefore,  to  be 
due  only  to  variations  in  the  raw  material,  and  therefore,  as  an  argu- 
ment against  them,  would  apply  to  the  wet  grains  as  well  as  the  dry. 

The  chemist  of  this  Station  visited  three  of  the  plants  preparing 
the  dried  samples  analyzed  in  this  bulletin,  and  through  the  courtesy 
of  those  in  charge  was  allowed  to  inspect  the  processes  employed. 
With  the  data  at  hand,  the  lack  of  uniformity  which  has  been  shown 
to  exist  in  the  raw  material,  precludes  any  comparison  of  their  effi- 
ciency. The  methods  employed  were  in  general  to  conduct  a current 
of  hot  air  over  or  through  the  material  in  thin  layers,  properly 
agitated  to  expose  fresh  drying  surfaces.  In  some  cases  a large  part 
of  the  water  was  first  removed  by  mechanical  means ; in  others  pre- 
vious treatment  was  omitted.  The  use  of  centrifugals,  presses  and 
similar  devices  has  been  believed  to  be  accompanied  by  a loss  of 
soluble  nutrients,  which  would  remain  in  the  dried  product  if  the 
water  were  removed  by  evaporation  alone.  In  order  to  learn  the 
extent  and  character  of  this  loss,  a separate  sample  was  taken  of  each 
of  the  wet  grains  whose  analysis  has  been  already  given.  These  were 
pressed  by  hand  in  a small  but  comparatively  powerful  hand-press, 
and  it  is  believed,  on  account  of  the  care  taken  and  the  small  quan- 
tity pressed  at  a time,  that  the  results  with  this  press  were  not 
widely  different  from  those  of  more  powerful  machinery,  working 
with  less  care  upon  larger  amounts  of  wet  material. 

The  amounts  of  liquor  and  residue  secured  by  this  method  from 
100  pounds  of  wet  grains,  and  the  actual  weights  of  dry  matter  and 
water  in  each,  may  be  learned  from  the  following  table : 


24 


FROM  ONE  HUNDRED  POUNDS  OF  WET  GRAINS. 


<P 

Residue. 

Liquor. 

<J3 

s 

►» 

Eh 

ft 

"oS 

H 

Total  Water. 

j Total. 

Dry  Matter. 

Water. 

Total. 

Dry  Matter. 

Water. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

27.02 

72.98 

60.63 

24.56 

36.07 

39.37 

2.46 

36.91 

25.25 

74.75 

54.45 

23.70 

30.75 

45.55 

1.55 

44.00 

23.97 

76.03 

65.30 

23.37 

41.93 

34.70 

0.60 

34.10 

23.20 

76.80 

53.25 

22.30 

30.95 

46.75 

0.90 

45.85 

24.50 

75.50 

51.35 

23.61 

27.74 

48.65 

0.89 

47.76 

24.79 

75.21 

57.00 

23.51 

33.49 

43.00 

1.28 

41.72 

per  cent. 
100.0 

per  cent. 
100.0 

per  cent. 
95.0 

per  cent. 
44.5 

per  cent. 
5.0 

per  cent. 
55.5 

By  the  operation  of  pressing,  100  pounds  of  wet  grains,  containing 
on  the  average  24.79  pounds  of  solid  matter  and  75.21  pounds  of 
water,  was  reduced  to  57  pounds,  consisting  of  23.51  pounds  of  solid 
matter  and  but  33.49  pounds  of  water ; or,  in  other  words,  in  the 
pomace  was  contained  95  per  cent,  of  the  total  dry  matter,  associated 
with  less  than  one-half  (44.5  per  cent.)  of  the  water  originally  in  the 
grains.  The  liquor,  therefore,  contained  the  losses,  consisting  of  1.28 
pounds  of  matter  dissolved  or  suspended  in  41.72  pounds  of  water. 

In  order  to  learn  the  effect  of  this  loss  upon  the  composition  of 
dried  grains  prepared  by  such  a process,  the  pomace  and  liquor  were 
in  each  case  prepared  for  analysis  by  evaporation  of  the  water,  the 
one  at  130°  F.  and  the  other  at  212°  F.  The  results  of  the  analysis 
of  the  dry  matter  are  given  in  detail  upon  page  25. 


25 


Q 

S3 

<1 

GQ 

t-H 

<1 

O 


& H 

5 « 

t>  PL, 

w o 

H p 

fc  m 
M J 

H 

gg 

Eh  ^ 

3 & 

S w 

{H 

ti 

Q 


H 

w 

Eh 


go 

H 

GQ 

J 

<1 

& 

<1 


•qstqoj 

0.12 

0.08 

0.08 

0.07 

0.05 

0.08 

0.05 

0.11 

0.07 

0.07 

0.05 

i> 

© 

o 

1.02 

0.S5 

0.62 

0.61 

0.93 

oo 

o 

•pioy  ouoqdsoqj 

0.83 

0.97 

0.99 

1.15 

0.98 

0.98 

0.81 

0.75 

0.81 

0.96 

0.89 

0.84 

1.01 

3.49 

4.51 

4.29 

2.55 

! LVS 

•uaSoiq^  pqox 

4.60 

4.06 

3.50 

4.28 

4.73 

4.23 

4.95 

4.12 

3.55 

4.42 

4.74 

4.36 

1.27 

2.66 

2.35 

2.87 

3.45 

<M 

oi 

•naSoni^  piouinmqxy 

4.34 

3.99 

3.46 

4.17 

4.71 

CO 

4.75 

3.99 

3.50 

4.35 

4.66 

4.25 

0.49 

1.11 

1.41 

2,40 

1.73 

CO 

•sa^'BipjCqoqi'eo 

48.30 

49.02 

54.09 

46.76 

44.94 

48.62 

43.90 

47.40 

53.56 

46.09 

43.96 

46.99 

86.48 

72.19 

71.13 

66.98 

55.88 

70.53  j 

•qsy  sptuo 

2.98 
3 62 
3.52 

3.98 
3.80 

3.58 

3.06 

3.52 

3.33 

3.48 

3.51 

oo 

eo 

eo 

5.28 

10.10 

12.50 

13.80 

13.58 

11.05  | 

umioij  epnjo 

28.77 

25.40 

21.85 

26.75 

29.55 

26.46 

30.96 

25.73 

22.19 

27.64 

29.63 

CO 

<N 

Si 

7.92 

16.64 

14.69 

17.91 

21.53 

i> 

iO 

•jaqitf  9pruo 

10.39 

13.83 

13.98 

14.66 

13.89 

13.35 

12.05 

15.24 

14.27 

14.63 

14.83 

14.20 

0.07 

0.11 

0.27 

0.20 

0.14 

CD 

© 

•JR.!  apniQ 

9.56 
8.13 

6.56 
7.85 
7.82 

7.99 

10.03 

8.11 

6.65 

8.16 

8.07 

8.20 

0.25 

0.96 

1.41 

1.11 

8.87 

UO 

ol 

•SUI'BIO 

jo  aidraug  racuj 

<1WOOH  I j 

ANALYSIS  OF  THE  DRY  MATTER  IN 

Unpressed  Grains 

c<  u 

Averages 

Residue  from  Pressing 

Averages 

Liquor  from  Pressing 

Averages 

•jaqranK  uoipsjs 

lOO*OlQI>  CO  O rH  CO  CO  t-H  03  O 

CD  CO  OO  CO  O CO  CO  CO  Ci  0 N CO  OO  05 

I>  l>  I>  l''-  l>  |>  l>  t*  I>  I>  1>  1>  !>• 

26 


By  an  examination  of  the  analysis  of  the  dry  matter  in  the  liquor 
it  is  seen  that  it  drew  upon  the  constituents  of  the  original  grain  dis- 
proportionately. Those  soluble  in  water  or  easily  suspended  therein 
suffered  the  greater  loss.  Its  composition  is  consequently  entirely 
different  from  that  of  dried  grains,  being  richer  in  carbohydrates, 
crude  protein  and  crude  ash,  especially  their  soluble  portions — sugar, 
non-albuminoids  and  potash — the  accumulation  of  which,  from  a 
mere  trace  in  the  original  grain,  amounts  to  relatively  considerable. 
Of  the  fiber,  on  the  other  hand,  but  a trace  appears ; while  the  amount 
of  the  fat  in  most  instances  is  also  small,  the  average  being  raised  by 
the  abnormal  content  of  sample  No.  799. 

The  total  amount  of  this  loss,  as  before  stated,  is  equal  to  1.28 
pounds  from  100  pounds  of  wet  grains  of  75  per  cent,  water  content, 
or  5 pounds  from  a normal  output  of  100  pounds  of  dried  grains.  In 
a consideration  from  the  consumer’s  standpoint  of  the  effect  of  this 
loss  upon  the  dried  grains  thus  prepared,  account  is  to  be  taken  of  the 
nutrients  contained  not  in  the  residual  95  pounds,  but  in  100  pounds 
of  such  a product.  The  results  of  the  removal  of  5 pounds  of  sub- 
stance having  the  composition  of  the  dry  matter  in  the  liquor,  and  the 
addition  of  5 pounds  of  material  like  the  residue  after  that  removal, 
may  be  shown  as  follows  : 


ON  THE  DRY  BASIS. 

08 

pH 

<u 

'd 

o> 

jQ 

K 

a> 

'O 

a 

"3 

o 

Pi 

'P 

A 

(B 

'O 

03 

| 

'd 
© . 
3 a 

li 

0 

O) 

1 

2 
d 

< 

o 

o 

Ph 

03 

A 

02 

si 

P 

P 

p 

u 

g 

§ 

.Q.-S 

o 

Jd 

O 

O 

O 

O 

o 

O 

Eh 

Pi 

Pi 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

100  lbs.  of  unpressed  grains  contain.. 

7.99 

13.35 

26.46 

3.58 

48.62 

4.13 

4.23 

.98 

.08 

5 lbs.  of  matter  in  the  liquor  re- ) 
move / 

.12 

.01 

.79 

.55 

3.53 

.07 

.13 

.16 

.04 

95  lbs.  of  residue  contain 

7.87 

13.34 

25.67 

3.03 

45.09 

4.06 

4.10 

.82 

.04 

5 lbs.  like  the  above  residue  add... 

.41 

.71 

1.35 

.16 

2.37 

.21 

.22 

.04 

.02 

100  lbs.  as  put  on  the  market  contain 

8.28 

14.05 

27.02 

3.19 

47.46 

4.27 

4.32 

.86 

.06 

It  will  be  noticed  that  this  calculated  analysis  of  the  dry  matter  of 
the  pressed  grains,  as  they  would  be  put  on  the  market,  is  slightly 
different  from  that  given  in  the  table,  the  one  having  been  calculated 
from  the  analyses  of  the  unpressed  grains,  and  of  the  loss  in  the 
liquor,  while  the  other  is  the  direct  analysis  of  the  residue.  Such 


27 


differences  as  these  are  to  be  expected  when  separate  samples  of  the 
same  material  are  taken  for  analysis,  especially  when  each  undergoes 
a decidedly  different  manipulation. 

Taking  either  set  of  figures  as  a guide,  it  is  seen  that  the  carbo- 
hydrates and  ash  are  not  fully  replaced ; but  as  their  loss  is  compen- 
sated for  by  a corresponding  increase  in  the  amounts  of  protein  and 
fat,  the  previous  pressing  of  the  material  does  not,  from  the  con- 
sumer’s standpoint,  furnish  an  inferior  product.  The  loss  which 
occurs  falls  entirely  upon  the  manufacturer,  since  he  produces  but  95 
pounds  of  dried  grains  instead  of  100;  it  concerns  him  alone  whether 
it  is  more  economical  to  lose  the  5 pounds  of  product  or  evaporate 
167  pounds  of  water.  To  the  consumer  the  method  of  manufacture 
is  of  little  practical  account,  since  the  variations  in  the  composition  of 
dried  brewers’  grains,  due  to  a difference  of  process,  are  trivial  in 
comparison  with  those  due  to  lack  of  uniformity  in  the  raw  material. 

6. 

Estimated  Output  of  Dried  Brewers’  Grains. 

There  are  at  present  four  different  plants  engaged  in  drying  the 
grains  of  Eastern  breweries,  viz. : The  Empire  Dairy  Feed  Company, 
of  New  York  City ; The  Long  Island  Drying  Company,  of  Brooklyn, 
N.  Y. ; The  National  Feed  Company,  of  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  and  The 
Hill  Drying  Company,  of  Newark,  N.  J.  These  all  employ  different 
processes,  though,  as  has  been  shown,  the  resultant  products  do  not 
differ  widely  in  chemical  composition. 

The  total  calculated  capacity  of  these  plants  aggregates  about 
15,000  tons  annually.  Their  actual  production  for  the  past  year, 
however,  has  been  very  much  less,  probably  not  more  than  6,000 
tons,  owing  to  the  fact  that  one  of  them  has  just  fairly  begun  to 
produce  the  grains  in  commercial  quantities,  and  that  another,  whose 
claimed  capacity  is  the  largest,  is  in  operation  mainly  through  the 
summer  season. 

The  production  of  the  dried  grains  is  likely  to  be  very  largely  in- 
creased in  the  near  future,  since  the  parties  interested  in  the  present 
methods  are  now  enlarging  and  extending  their  works,  while  parties 
representing  another  process  are  also  engaged  in  the  erection  of  a 
plant  with  a claimed  capacity  of  20,000  tons  annually,  making  a 
total  estimated  output,  when  all  are  in  operation,  of  100,000  tons 
annually,  thus  utilizing  a large  portion  of  the  wet  grains  produced  by 
the  breweries  in  the  vicinity  of  New  York  and  Philadelphia.  The 


28 


production  of  wet  grains  is  not  less  than  600,000  tons  annually,  and 
used  almost  entirely  for  milk  dairies  located  within  shipping  distance 
of  these  cities.  Plants  are  also  in  operation  in  Milwaukee,  St.  Louis 
and  Chicago,  the  product  of  the  latter  of  which  has  been  used  by 
farmers  in  this  State.  The  future  supply  of  dried  brewed  grains 
seems,  therefore,  to  be  well  assured.  According  to  leading  authorities, 
the  drying  of  all  the  grains  depends  upon  two  points  : (1)  An  econom- 
ical process  of  drying,  and  (2)  a proper  understanding  of  the  nutritive 
values  of  the  wet  and  dry  product  on  the  part  of  the  consumers. 

The  first  difficulty  seems  to  have  been  overcome ; the  second  will 
require  more  time,  because  of  the  difficulty  of  directly  reaching 
individual  consumers  in  such  a way  as  to  overcome  acquired  prejudice 
in  favor  of  the  wet  product  for  dairy  cows,  and  to  encourage  the  use 
of  the  dried  grains  for  horses  and  other  farm  stock. 

This  study  of  the  food  requirements  of  work-horses  and  of  the 
preparation  of  rations  suggests : 

1.  That  at  the  present  time  too  little  attention  is  paid  to  the 
preparation  of  rations  for  work-horses.  Rational  feeding  is  quite  as 
important  for  horses  as  for  dairy  cows. 

2.  That  the  hind  and  quality  of  specific  nutrients  contained  in 
feeds,  and  not  their  names , should  guide  in  the  preparation  of  rations. 

3.  That  while  oats  are  an  excellent  horse  feed,  it  it  not  alone 
because  they  are  oats,  but  because  of  the  amounts  and  proportions  of 
the  more  valuable  nutrients,  fat  and  protein,  contained  in  them. 

4.  That  dried  brewers’  grains  are  a wholesome,  nutritious  and 
palatable  horse  feed,  and,  at  present  prices,  they  may  be  substituted 
for  oats,  and  a decided  saving  made  in  the  cost  of  the  ration. 

5.  Timothy  hay  and  oats,  at  present  prices,  are  expensive  feeds.  It 
does  not  follow,  because  a farmer  raises  these  crops,  that  he  should 
feed  them,  when  other  products,  equally  useful,  may  be  purchased  at  a 
less  cost  per  pound  of  actual  nutrients. 

6.  The  condition  of  the  markets  in  this  State  furnishes  abundant 
evidence  that  the  selling  price  of  fine  feeds  and  farm  products  is  not 
a correct  basis  for  estimating  actual  feeding  value. 

7.  A farmer  who  intelligently  exchanges  farm  products  for  com- 
mercial feeds,  even  at  the  same  prices  per  ton,  may  secure  not  only  an 
increase  in  feeding  value,  but  also  a gain  in  fertility.  Market  condi- 
tions do  not  recognize  differences  in  the  fertilizing  constituents  of 
feeds 

JAMES  NEILSON, 

Acting  Director. 

New  Brunswick,  N.  J.,  February  1st,' 1893. 


2^c . /<$/  r 


ANALYSES  AND  STUDY  OF  HOME-MIXED  FERTILIZERS 
AND  FERTILIZING  MATERIALS. 


NEW  JERSEY 

AGRICULTURAL 


ent 


m 


93 


NEW  JERSEY 

Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


BULLETIN  93. 

JULY  1,  1893. 

Analyses  and  Study  of  Home-Mixed  Fertilizers 
and  Fertilizing;  Materials. 


BY  LOUIS  A.  VOORHEES,  CHEMIST. 
JOHN  P.  STREET,  CHEMIST. 


I.  The  consumption  of  fertilizers  in  the  State. 

II.  The  preparation  of  formulas. 

III.  Home  mixtures;  their  mechanical  condition , composition  and 

valuation. 

IV.  Comparison  of  methods  of  buying  fertilizers. 

V.  Trade  values  of  fertilizing  ingredients  for  1893. 

VI.  Average  cost  per  pound  of  plant-food  constituents. 

VII.  Methods  of  buying  raw  materials;  chemical  analyses. 


I. 

The  Consumption  of  Fertilizers  in  the  State. 

Each  year  witnesses  an  increased  use  of  commercial  fertilizers  by 
the  farmers  of  the  State,  consisting  both  of  the  mixtures  prepared  by 
manufacturers  and  of  raw  fertilizing  materials.  Statistics  gathered 
by  the  Station  show  that  the  use  of  mixed  fertilizers  has  more  than 
doubled  in  the  last  ten  years,  while  the  use  of  raw  or  unmixed  ma- 
terials, not  including  ground  and  dissolved  bone,  has  increased  about 
40  per  cent.  The  figures  are  as  follows  : 


4 


Mixed  fertilizers  sold  in  1882 15,941  tons. 

“ “ “ « 1892 33,821  “ 

Increase 17,880  “ 

Unmixed  fertilizing  materials  sold  in  188.2 6,081  tons. 

“ “ “ “ “ 1892 8,544  “ 

Increase 2,463  “ 


The  total  value  of  all  reported  sales  in  1882  was  $1,070,113  and 
in  1892,  $1,509,921,  an  increase  in  1892  over  1882  of  $439,808. 

It  is  observed  that  the  value  of  the  sales  made  in  1892  is  propor- 
tionately much  less  than  in  1882.  The  decrease  in  cost  is  due  in 
large  part  to  three  causes — first,  to  the  increased  supply  of  raw  ma- 
terials, particularly  the  nitrogenous  salts  and  phosphates ; second,  to 
improved  methods  in  the  handling  and  manufacture  of  raw  materials, 
and,  third,  to  a better  knowledge  of  fertilizing  materials  and  their 
proper  use,  both  on  the  part  of  the  manufacturer  and  the  consumer. 
The  fact  still  remains,  however,  that  the  cost  of  fertilizers  is  a very 
considerable  item  in  the  expenditures  of  the  farmer ; it  is,  therefore, 
of  great  importance,  in  order  to  make  economical  purchases,  that  he 
should  have  very  definite  knowledge  as  to  what  constitutes  value  in  a 
fertilizer  and  of  his  own  particular  needs. 


II. 

The  Preparation  of  Formulas. 

While  it  is  now  pretty  generally  understood  that  the  value  of  a fer- 
tilizer depends  upon  the  amount  and  kind  of  nitrogen,  phosphoric 
acid  and  potash  contained  in  it,  on  the  whole  the  value  of  definite 
proportions  of  these  elements,  for  the  different  crops,  is  not  so  clear. 
The  evidence  given  by  the  manufacturers  themselves  indicates  that 
even  they  do  not  agree  as  to  what  constitutes  perfect  proportions, 
since,  in  nearly  all  cases,  their  special  formulas  for  the  various  crops 
are  radically  different,  yet  they  uniformly  insist  that  their  own 
formula — for  potatoes,  for  instance — is  perfect  for  all  conditions  of 
soil  and  season,  and  will  work  equally  well  everywhere.  Such  claims 
have  no  foundation  in  fact. 

For  general  farming  it  is  evident  that  it  is  more  frequently  a ques- 
tion of  amount  of  plant-food  applied,  rather  than  the  proportions  in 
which  the  different  elements  exist  in  a mixture.  Still  there  are  many 


5 


good  reasons  for  the  preparation  of  special  formulas  for  the  different 
crops,  special  not  only  in  amount  but  in  kind  of  plant-food  furnished. 
Our  own  experiments  have  shown  this  repeatedly.  For  instance,  it 
has  been  shown  that  early  tomatoes  require,  for  the  best  results,  not 
only  an  abundance  of  nitrogen,  but  that  the  nitrogen  shall  be  in 
quickly*  available  forms.  A formula,  therefore,  which  contained  a 
high  percentage  of  nitrogen,  derived  from  slowly-available  organic 
forms,  would  not  be  likely  to  give  as  good  results  as  one  which  con- 
tained a lower  percentage,  existing  in  the  form  of  nitrates. 

Plants  have  also  been  classified  as  to  their  special  needs  for  plant- 
food,  and  it  is  a useful  classification,  yet  it  seems  that  there  should  be 
a still  further  subdivision,  since  it  frequently  happens  that  the  ele- 
ment which  is  specifically  useful  when  the  object  is  the  largest 
mature  plant,  is  not  the  one  that  is  most  useful  when  the  object  is  a 
rapid,  early  growth  rather  than  maturity.  Furthermore,  the  kind  of 
soil  is  an  important  factor,  soils  of  equal  quality  in  respect  to  con- 
tained plant-food  not  responding  uniformly  to  equal  applications  of 
the  same  forms  of  fertilizer  constituents.  In  the  preparation  of 
formulas,  therefore,  regard  should  be  had  to  the  character  of  soil, 
whether  rich  or  poor,  heavy  or  light,  dry  or  wet ; the  method  of  the 
growth,  whether  for  quick  and  partial,  or  slow  and  full  development. 
The  character  of  the  farming,  too,  should  be  regarded.  It  is  obvious 
that  heavy  applications  of  quickly-available  and  relatively  costly 
forms  of  plant-food  would  be  less  likely  to  prove  profitable  in  general 
or  extensive  farming  than  in  specific  and  intensive,  though  in  all 
methods  of  farm  practice  there  is  some  one  crop  regarded  as  more 
profitable  than  another.  In  such  cases,  frequent  applications  of  dif- 
ferent fertilizers  may  be  avoided,  if,  by  heavy  applications  of  good 
materials,  the  more  profitable  crop  is  made  as  large  as  conditions  of 
season  and  climate  will  permit,  trusting  to  the  residues  of  plant- food 
left  by  it  to  bring  forward  the  others  in  a rotation  to  a maximum. 

The  duplication  of  formulas  may  be  avoided,  too,  by  the  prepara- 
tion of  what  may  be  termed  a basic  formula ; that  is,  one  rich  in  all 
the  fertilizer  constituents,  without  particular  reference  to  any  single 
element,  this  being  applied  heavily  upon  some  one  crop  in  the  rota- 
tion, the  other  crops  being  furnished  with  such  specific  elements  as 
they  may  require.  Assuming,  for  instance,  that  the  rotation  is  the 
common  one,  of  corn,  potatoes,  wheat  and  hay,  a rational  fertilization, 
and  one  which  would  be  likely  to  be  quite  as  useful  as  any,  would  be 


6 


as  follows : For  corn,  300  pounds  per  acre  of  a mixture  made  up  of 
200  pounds  of  S.  C.  rock  superphosphate  and  100  pounds  of  muriate 
of  potash,  and  such  barnyard  manure  as  may  be  available,  all  applied 
broadcast. 

For  potatoes,  apply  as  a minimum  one-half  ton  per  acre  of  a mix- 
ture made  up  as  follows  : 


Nitrate  of  soda . 200  pounds. 

Sulphate  of  ammonia 200  “ 

Tankage  (ground  fine) 200  “ 

Bone  black  or  S.  C.  rock  superphosphate 1,000  “ 

High-grade  sulphate  of  potash 400  “ 

2,000  “ 


At  least  two-thirds  of  this  mixture  should  be  applied  broadcast, 
the  remainder  evenly  over  the  row  at  time  of  planting.  For  wheat 
and  timothy,  apply,  in  early  spring,  a dressing  of  from  100  to  200 
pounds  per  acre  of  nitrate  of  soda. 

By  this  method  of  fertilization,  the  potatoes,  frequently  the  best- 
paying crop,  would  be  supplied  with  sufficient  plant- food  of  all  kinds 
to  insure  a maximum  growth,  under  normal  conditions  of  season  and 
average  conditions  of  soil,  and  would  leave  a considerable  residue, 
particularly  of  mineral  constituents,  available  for  the  wheat  and  hay ; 
the  total  amount  of  fertilizer  constituents,  added  in  the  rotation,  would 
also  be  more  than  sufficient  to  supply  the  maximum  needs  of  all  the 
crops,  thus  insuring  a gradual  increase  in  fertility.  This  system  may 
also  be  adopted  where  more  intensive  methods  are  practiced,  such 
crops  as  tomatoes,  onions,  beets,  turnips,  cabbage,  etc.,  receiving  the 
constituents  particularly  useful  in  forcing  early  growth,  the  others 
being  supplied  by  heavy  applications  of  the  basic  formula. 

For  fruit  trees,  vines  and  similar  slow  growths,  the  basic  formula 
may  consist  of  a mixture  made  up  of  two  parts  of  ground  bone  and 
one  of  muriate  or  sulphate  of  potash.  Nitrate  of  soda  should  supply 
the  extra  nitrogen  required,  which  experience  has  found  to  be  neces- 
sary after  the  bearing  period  has  begun. 

One  of  the  best-producing  peach  orchards  in  the  State,  now  10 
years  old,  and  still  healthy  and  vigorous,  has  received  a yearly  appli- 
cation of  1,000  pounds  per  acre  of  this  mixture  and  200  pounds  per 
acre  of  nitrate  of  soda  during  the  period  of  bearing. 


7 


FORMULAS  USED  IN 

MAKING 

THE  MIXTURES. 

No.  5036.  John  S.  Collins. 

No 

. 5147.  Swedesboro  Grange. 

“200  lbs.  of  Nitrate  of  Soda. 

200  lbs. 

of  Nitrate  of  Soda. 

200  “ 

“ Sulphate  of  Ammonia. 

200  “ 

“ Sulphate  of  Ammonia. 

400  “ 

“ Peter  Cooper’s  Bone. 

400  “ 

“ Peter  Cooper’s  Bone. 

400  “ 

“ Bone-Black  Superphosphate. 

400  “ 

“ Bone-Black  Superphosphate. 

■600  “ 

“ S.  C.  Rock  Superphosphate, 

600  “ 

“ S.  C.  Rock  Superphosphate. 

200  “ 

“ Muriate  of  Potash. 

200  « 

“ Muriate  of  Potash. 

■2000 

2000 

No.  5090.  Runyon  Field. 

No.  5176.  Charles  Tindall. 

200  lbs.  of  Nitrate  of  Soda. 

300  lbs.  of  Nitrate  of  Soda. 

400  “ 

“ Tankage. 

800  “ 

“ Ground  Bone. 

1000  “ 

“ Dissolved  Bone. 

500  “ 

“ Bone-Black  Superphosphate. 

400  “ 

“ Muriate  of  Potash. 

400  “ 

“ Muriate  of  Potash. 

mo 

2000 

No.  5166.  M.  S.  Crane. 

No.  5182.  Amos  Gardiner. 

150  lbs.  of  Nitrate  of  Soda. 

300  lbs. 

of  Nitrate  of  Soda. 

.200  “ 

“ Sulphate  of  Ammonia. 

700  “ 

“ King  Crab. 

300  “ 

“ Ground  Bone, 

300  “ 

“ Peter  Cooper’s  Bone. 

900  “ 

“ Bone-Black  Superphosphate. 

500  “ 

“ Bone-Black  Superphosphate. 

450  “ 

“ High-Grade  Sulphate  of  Potash. 

200  « 

“ Muriate  of  Potash. 

.2000 

2000 

No. 

5254.  Monmouth  Co.  Grange. 

No.  5435.  D.  D.  Denise. 

200  lbs.  of  Nitrate  of  Soda. 

2C0  lbs.  of  Nitrate  of  Soda. 

200  “ 

“ Sulphate  of  Ammonia. 

200  “ 

“ Sulphate  of  Ammonia. 

800  “ 

“ Bone-Black  Superphosphate. 

200  “ 

“ Ground  Bone. 

400  “ 

“ S.  C.  Rock  Superphosphate. 

1000  “ 

“ Bone-Black  Superphosphate. 

200  “ 

“ Muriate  of  Potash. 

200  “ 

“ Muriate  of  Potash. 

200  “ 

“ High-Grade  Sulphate  of  Potash. 

200  “ 

“ High-Grade  Sulphate  of  Potas] 

2000 

2000 

No.  5353.  J.  H.  Denise. 

No.  5499.  John  A.  Layton. 

200  lbs. 

of  Nitrate  of  Soda. 

200  lbs. 

of  Nitrate  of  Soda. 

150  “ 

“ Sulphate  of  Ammonia. 

1000  “ 

“ Dissolved  Bone. 

50  “ 

“ Cotton -Seed  Meal. 

200  “ 

“ Muriate  of  Potash. 

400  “ 

“ Dissolved  Bone. 

600  “ 

Hen  Manure. 

400  “ 

“ Bone-Black  Superphosphate. 

■ 

400  “ 

“ S.  C.  Rock  Superphosphate. 

2000 

200  “ 

“ High-Grade  Sulphate  of  Potash. 

200  “ 

“ Muriate  of  Potash. 

•2000 

III. 

Home  Mixtures:  Their  Mechanical  Condition,  Composition  and 

Valuation. 

With  one  exception  the  home  mixtures  here  reported  were  made  up 
from  high-grade  materials,  and  may  be  regarded  rather  as  basic  in  the 
sense  already  stated  than  as  mixtures  for  special  crops,  though  in 
many  cases  the  formulas  were  adopted  after  a study  of  the  require- 
ments of  soil  and  crop  in  the  section  in  which  they  are  used.  Chemical 
analyses  were  made  of  all  the  materials  used  in  the  mixtures  and  are 
all  reported  in  this  bulletin. 


8 


The  Fineness  of  the  Mixtures. 


It  has  been  stated  in  our  previous  reports  that  the  samples  of  home- 
mixtures,  as  well  as  manufactured  brands,  were,  on  the  whole,  fine,, 
dry  and  of  good  mechanical  condition.  It  is  claimed  by  manufac- 
turers and  dealers,  however,  that  a farmer  with  his  ordinary  farm* 
appliances  cannot  get  that  degree  of  fineness  in  his  mixtures  which  is 
so  essential  for  ease  of  handling  and  the  best  distribution  of  the 
material. 

Mechanical  condition,  though  of  unquestionable  value,  is  a relative 
term ; that  is,  fineness  in  a mixture  whieh  has  been  made  from  ma- 
terials containing  the  fertilizer  constituents  in  relatively  insoluble 
forms,  is  evidently  of  greater  importance  than  fineness  in  a mixture 
which  has  been  made  from  materials  containing  easily-soluble  and 
readily-available  constituents. 

In  our  studies  this  year  this  point  was  made  a matter  of  actual 
investigation.  All  the  samples  of  home  mixtures  examined,  10  in 
number,  were  subjected  to  a mechanical  analysis,  and  as  a means  of 
comparison  12  samples  representing  the  leading  brands  of  different 
manufacturers  were  also  included.  The  standard  of  fineness  or  perfect 
mechanical  composition  was  made  one  twenty- fifth  of  an  inch  in  diame- 
ter ; that  is,  the  condition  was  regarded  as  perfect  if  all  of  the  material 
passed  through  a sieve,  the  holes  of  which  were  one  twenty-fifth  of  an- 
inch  in  diameter.  The  fineness  of  the  samples  examined  is  given  in* 
the  following  table : 


Home  Mixtures. 


Manufacturers’  Mixtures, 


FINER  THAN  COARSER  THAN 

2»5in.  in.  & in. 


No. 

per  cent. 

per  cent. 

per  cent. 

5036.. 

....  89 

7 

4 

5090... 

....  70 

24 

6 

5147... 

....  83 

10 

7 

5166... 

....  92 

5 

3 

5176... 

....  73 

15 

12 

5182... 

14 

15* 

5253.. 

...  90 

7 

3 

5254... 

....  74 

21 

5- 

5435... 

....  78 

17 

5 

13- 


FINER  THAN  COARSER  THAN 


sV  Hi- 

A  in. 

12  in. 

No. 

per  cent. 

per  cent. 

per  cent. 

1... 

...  86 

9 

5 

2... 

...  81 

12 

7 

3... 

...  85 

10 

5 

4... 

...  80 

16 

4 

5... 

...  78. 

17 

5 

6... 

...  81 

14 

5 

7... 

...  79 

14 

7 

8... 

...  76 

17 

7 

9... 

...  69 

21 

10 

10... 

...  71 

22 

0 

11... 

...  74 

17 

9* 

12... 

...  65 

24 

11 

5499, 


68 


19 


9 


Of  the  home  mixtures  it  is  observed  that  in  two  cases  only  did  the 
samples  approach  closely  to  perfection,  90  per  cent,  and  over  in  each 
<jase  being  finer  than  one  twenty-fifth  of  an  inch  in  diameter ; in  one 
case  the  fineness  fell  below  70  per  cent. 

In  the  manufacturers’  mixtures  the  greatest  fineness  reached  was 
96  per  cent. ; though  on  the  whole  the  samples  were  very  uniform,  in 
two  cases  the  fineness  fell  below  70  per  cent.  The  average  fineness 
of  the  whole  number  of  samples  in  each  lot  is  as  follows : 


Home  Mixtures. 

FINER  THAN  COARSER  THAN 

is  in.  is  in.  TV  in. 

iper  cent.  per  cent.  per  cent. 

79  14  7 


Manufacturers’  Mixtures. 
FINER  THAN  COARSER  THAN 

is  in.  TI  in.  iV  in. 

per  cent.  per  cent.  per  cent. 

77  16  7 


The  statement  heretofore  made  in  reference  to  the  condition  of  both 
'home  mixtures  and  manufacturers’  mixtures  seems  from  this  study  to 
have  been  well  founded,  though  it  is  further  shown  that  farmers  using 
the  ordinary  appliances  of  the  farm  do  make  from  the  supplies  of 
raw  materials  regularly  on  sale  in  the  markets  better  mixtures  than 
the  manufacturers. 

The  superior  mechanical  condition  of  the  manufacturers’  mixtures, 
so  strongly  urged  by  interested  parties,  is  not  sustained  by  this  inves- 
tigation. 

The  study  of  the  composition  of  these  mixtures,  as  bearing  upon 
this  matter  of  condition,  is  also  instructive.  The  State  law  requires 
that  only  the  potash  soluble  in  water  shall  be  determined  in  commer- 
cial fertilizers ; hence,  on  the  same  basis  of  mechanical  condition, 
home  mixtures  and  manufacturers’  mixtures  are  equal  in  respect  to 
the  availability  of  potash.  In  the  case  of  nitrogen  and  phosphoric 
acid,  however,  both  the  soluble  and  insoluble  forms  are  taken  into 
consideration.  The  soluble  nitrogen,  for  instance,  in  all  cases  consists 
largely  of  nitrates  and  ammonia  salts,  while  the  organic  or  insoluble 
nitrogen  may  be  derived  from  a whole  series  of  products,  ranging 
from  dried  blood  to  ground  horn  and  hoof ; the  distribution  and 
availability  of  the  former  being  practically  but  little  iufluenced  by 
fineness,  while  the  availability  of  the  latter  is  in  direct  ratio  to  the 
fineness.  In  the  case  of  phosphoric  acid  the  mechanical  condition  de- 
termines to  a certain  extent  the  possible  availability  of  that  shown  by 
.analysis  to  be  insoluble. 

Of  the  total  nitrogen  in  the  home  mixtures  examined,  72  per  cent. 


10 


consists  of  nitrates  and  ammonia  salts,  and  of  the  total  phosphoric 
acid  80  per  cent,  is  available.  Of  the  total  nitrogen  in  the  manu- 
facturers’ mixtures,  but  28  per  cent,  consists  of  nitrates  and  ammonia 
salts,  while  75  per  cent,  of  the  total  phosphoric  acid  is  available. 

It  is  evident  that  mechanical  condition,  so  far  as  it  has  a bearing 
on  availability,  particularly  of  nitrogen,  may  be  far  more  important 
in  one  mixture  than  in  another.  Fineness  affects  but  28  per  cent,  of 
the  nitrogenous  materials  contained  in  the  home  mixtures,  while  in 
the  manufacturers’  mixtures  it  affects  72  per  cent. 

The  claim  that  farmers  cannot  secure  good  mechanical  condition  in 
their  mixtures  must  therefore  have  reference  to  the  use  of  low-grade 
materials,  rather  than  to  those  used  in  the  home  mixtures  reported.. 
It  is  admitted  that  low-grade  materials  do  require  the  use  of  machinery 
for  grinding  and  manipulation  in  order  to  secure  the  requisite  fineness. 


Composition  of  Home  Mixtures. 

The  actual  analyses  of  the  different  mixtures  are  given  in  the  fol- 
lowing table.  The  cost  of  the  materials  used  in  making  them  is  also 
compared  with  the  estimated  commercial  value  of  the  mixture  ati 
Station’s  valuation : 


TABLE  OF  ANALYSES 


Station  Number.  | 

NITROGEN. 

PHOSPHORIC  ACID. 

Potash. 

Cost  per  Ton. 

Valuation  at 
Station’s  Prices. 

Value  Exceeds 
Cost. 

| From 
j Nitrates. 

From  Am- 
monia Salts. 

From  Organic 
Matter. 

Soluble  in 
Water. 

Soluble  in 
Citrate  of 
Apimonia. 

Insoluble. 

Total 

Available. 

5036 

1.86 

1.92 

0.42 

8.80 

2.16 

2.34 

10.96 

4.96 

$30.00 

$33.42 

$3.42 

5090 

1.38 

0.18 

2.16 

4.28 

4.10 

1.83 

8.38 

10.69 

30.70 

33.69 

2.99 

5147 

1.59 

1.85 

0.54 

8.28 

2.11 

2.61 

10.39 

5.45 

27.29 

32.56 

5.27 

5166 

0.81 

2.18 

1.12 

7.76 

1.76 

1.44 

9.56 

11.78 

35.83 

39.76 

3.93 

5176 

2.56 

0.11 

1.41 

3.22 

4.33 

6.24 

7.55 

9.22 

30.47 

33.87 

3.40 

5182 

2.42 

0.25 

2.61 

3.34 

4.04 

2.31 

7.38 

7.13 

31.02 

34.42 

3.40 

5253 

138 

1.44 

0.68 

6 26 

0i  51 

0.93 

6.77 

13.68 

28.21 

33.06 

4.85 

5254 

1.21 

1.73 

0.45 

8.86 

0.16 

0.25 

9.02 

10.44 

29.40 

33.20 

3.80 

5435 

1.46 

2.09 

0.93 

8.86 

0.91 

0.26 

9.77 

9 61 

32.15 

37.04 

4.8» 

5499 

2.34 

0.12 

0.94 

3.50 

1.05 

1.77 

4.55 

10.60 

21.90 

27.12 

5.22: 

11 


The  chemical  analyses  of  these  mixtures  compare  very  favorably 
with  their  theoretical  composition,  calculated  from  the  analyses  of  the 
raw  materials,  and  from  the  weights  used  in  the  formulas,  and  thus 
verify  the  claim  that  farmers,  using  the  ordinary  tools  of  the  farm, 
do  make  even  mixtures  of  fertilizing  materials. 

It  will  be  observed  that  with  the  one  exception  where  hen  manure  was 
used  as  a base,  all  of  these  mixtures  are  high  grade,  the  average  com- 
position being  higher  than  the  average  of  the  same  number  of  brands, 
selected  as  the  highest  from  the  whole  number  of  different  manu- 
factured brands  now  on  the  market.  This  matter  of  concentration  is 
too  little  appreciated  by  the  farmers,  and  the  relatively  low  grade  of 
manufactured  brands  is  due  in  no  small  degree  to  a demand  on  their 
part  for  goods  at  a low  cost  per  ton. 

Ton  prices  alone  are  not  a safe  guide  in  the  purchase  of  mixed 
fertilizers. 

The  average  composition  of  all  the  complete  fertilizers  or  manu- 
facturers’ mixtures,  examined  by  the  Station  last  year,  and  the  average 
of  the  home  mixtures  of  this  year,  are  as  follows : 

Available 

Nitrogen.  Phosphoric  Acid.  Potash, 
per  cent.  per  cent.  per  cent. 

Manufacturers’  Mixtures 2.74  7.70  4 50 

Home  Mixtures 4.053  8.44  9.36 

Assuming  that  the  proportions  of  plant- food  are  as  good  in  one 
case  as  in  the  other,  and  that  there  were  as  many  tons  of  high-grade 
as  of  low-grade  brands  sold,  we  can  get  some  idea  of  the  financial 
importance  of  concentration. 

There  were  sold  in  1892,  33,821  tons  of  complete  fertilizer;  each 
ton  contained  on  the  average  299  pounds  of  actual  available  nitrogen, 
phosphoric  acid  and  potash ; each  ton  of  the  home  mixtures  contains 
on  the  average  436  pounds  of  actual  available  plant-food.  If,  there- 
fore, manufacturers’  mixtures  had  contained  as  much  actual  food  as 
the  home  mixtures,  the  total  amount  sold  last  year  would  have  been 
contained  in  23,172  tons,  instead  of  33,821  tons,  or  a difference  of 
10,649  tons;  that  is,  the  10,649  tons  of  material  mixed,  bagged, 
freighted  and  sold  as  part  of  the  various  brands,  contained  no  plant- 
food  whatever,  and  was,  therefore,  entirely  useless.  It  was  shown  in 
Bulletin  89,  of  this  Station,  that  the  charges  of  the  manufacturers 


12 


for  mixing,  bagging,  shipping  and  other  expenses  were  $8.53  per  ton. 
Since  it  costs  no  more  to  mix,  bag,  freight  and  sell  a high-grade  mix- 
ture than  a low-grade,  the  cost  to  the  farmers  for  handling  this  worth- 
less material  amounted  in  1892  to  $90,835.  It  has  been  shown  by 
the  work  of  this  Station,  that  the  average  composition  of  mixed  fer- 
tilizers and  the  fixed  charges  of  the  manufacturers  have  not  materially 
changed  in  the  last  ten  years.  The  total  sales  reported  during  this 
time  were  247,000  tons,  containing,  on  the  same  basis  of  comparison, 
77,000  tons  of  worthless  material,  which  cost  farmers  over  $656,000, 
and  from  which  they  could  expect  no  returns  whatever.  The  manu- 
facturers are  not  altogether  to  blame  for  this  state  of  affairs ; they 
aim  to  supply  the  demands  of  their  trade,  which  are  too  often  for 
cheap  goods. 

Concentration  or  highness  of  grade  is  also  important  from  the  stand- 
point of  quality  of  plant-food  ; fertilizers  of  a low  composition  must  be 
made  either  from  high-grade  materials  to  which  make- weight  has  been 
added,  or  from  low-grade  materials.  This  may  be  illustrated  by  the 
average  quality  of  the  complete  fertilizers  on  the  market.  If  made 
from  high-grade  materials  the  following  quantities  would  furnish  the 
actual  plant- food  present,  the  nitrogen  drawn  equally  from  the  three 
forms,  nitrates,  ammonia  salts  and  organic  matter : 

Furnishing  pounds  of 
Quantity  of  Phosphoric 


Nitrate  of  soda 

materials. 
..  115  lbs. 

Nitrogen. 

18.3 

Acid. 

Potash. 

Sulphate  of  ammonia 

..  90  “ 

18.3 

Dried  blood,  or  ammonite 

...  152  “ 

18.2 

Bone-black  superphosphate 

...  963  “ 

15.4 

Muriate  or  sulphate  of  potash..., 

...  180  “ 

90 

Total 

...1,500  “ 

54.8 

15.4 

90 

Per  cent 

...  2.74 

7.70 

4 50 

It  is  observed  from  this  statement  that  it  would  be  necessary  to  add 
500  pounds  of  make- weight  to  each  ton.  That  the  materials  used  in 
making  the  complete  fertilizers  are  not  all  high  grade  is  evidenced  by 
the  fact  that  less  than  one*  half  of  the  brands  contain  more  than  one 
form  of  nitrogen,  viz.,  organic,  and  that  nearly  all  of  them  contain  a 
very  considerable  percentage  of  insoluble  phosphoric  acid. 


13 


Cost  of  Home  Mixtures. 

These  home  mixtures  represent  the  purchase  of  about  700  tons;  the 
average  cost  is  $29.70,  and  the  valuation  $33.81,  or  a gain  of  $4.11 
over  Station’s  prices,  which  are  intended  to  represent  the  retail  cash 
cost  of  fertilizer  constituents  in  the  raw  materials  at  factory.  The 
cost  of  these  mixtures  may  perhaps  be  better  represented  by  showing 
the  actual  cost  per  pound  of  the  different  constituents.  Using  the 
average  composition  of  the  mixtures  and  the  Station’s  schedule  of 
iprices  as  factors,  the  result  is  as  follows : 

Nitrogen,  14.9  cents;  available  phosphoric  acid,  5.7  cents,  and 
potash,  4 cents  per  pound.  By  this  same  method  of  calculation  the 
average  cost  per  pound  of  the  constituents  in  complete  fertilizers  sold 
in  1892  is  shown  to  be : 

Nitrogen,  24.8  cents;  available  phosphoric  acid,  9.4  cents,  and 
potash,  6.7  cents  per  pound.  If  the  constituents  in  the  average  home 
mixture  this  year  had  been  bought  at  these  figures  the  cost  per  ton 
would  have  been  $49.27.  This  not  only  illustrates  the  impossibility 
of  getting  at  true  values  by  comparison  on  the  ton  basis  alone,  but 
shows  the  economy  in  buying  raw  fertilizing  materials  in  the  open 
market,  and  for  cash.  The  difference  of  $19.50  per  ton,  applied  to 
the  700  tons  represented,  makes  a total  of  $13,699.  This  is  certainly 
a good  return  for  cash  payments  instead  of  credit,  for  selecting 
materials  suited  to  the  needs  of  the  soil  and  plant,  instead  of  buying 
hit  or  miss,  and  for  using  the  regular  labor  of  the  farm  in  mixing, 
instead  of  paying  others  who  do  the  work  no  better. 

IV. 

Comparison  of  Methods  of  Buying  Fertilizers. 

This  Station  does  not  maintain  that  it  is  always  better  to  buy  raw 
materials  and  mix  at  home  than  to  buy  the  manufacturers’  brands, 
though  the  studies  made  here  give  strong  evidence  that  by  so  doing 
money  can  be  saved.  This  method  presupposes  in  all  cases  a definite 
knowledge  on  the  part  of  the  buyer  of  the  sources  of  supply,  of 
market  conditions  and  of  his  own  particular  needs.  With  such 
knowledge  at  command  farmers  can  buy  mixtures  very  much  cheaper 
on  the  whole  than  they  are  now  secured.  There  may  be,  and  doubt- 
less are,  too,  many  cases  in  which  it  is  preferable,  even  at  a higher 


14 


cost,  to  buy  manufacturers’  brands  instead  of  raw  materials.  A great 
many  farmers  object  to  mixing  at  home,  others  to  the  bother  of  buying 
at  a distance,  and  nearly  all  to  paying  cash,  and  to  avoid  one  or  all  of 
these  inconveniences,  and  at  the  same  time  to  do  business  in  a more 
business-like  way,  they  buy  direct  from  the  manufacturer  mixtures 
prepared  to  their  order.  Three  samples,  representing  goods  bought 
by  this  method  by  the  Coopertown  Farmers’  Club,  were  received  by 
the  Station  this  year.  Their  examination  furnishes  interesting  data 
in  reference  to  methods  of  buying.  The  mechanical  condition  of  two 
samples  was  good,  the  third  was  wet  and  pasty,  the  average  condition 
of  the  three  being  much  lower  than  that  shown  by  the  home  mixtures 
or  manufactured  brands.  The  average  content  of  soluble  nitrogen  is 
greater  than  that  contained  in  the  manufactured  brands,  and  less  than 
that  in  the  home  mixtures,  being  56  per  cent,  as  against  28  per  cent., 
in  the  manufactured  brands,  and  72  per  cent,  in  the  home  mixtures* 


Mechanical  Analyses. 


FINER  THAN  COARSER  THAN? 

35  in.  A in.  A in. 

No.  per  cent.  per  cent.  per  cent. 

5061  74  17  9 

5062  82  10  8 

5063  45  43  12 

Average 67  23  10 


The  average  composition  of  these  brands  is  much  lower  for  all  the 
constituents  than  the  average  of  the  home  mixtures,  and  lower  in 
nitrogen  than  the  average  of  the  mixed  fertilizers,  sold  in  1892;  with 
the  possible  exception  of  the  organic  nitrogen,  the  quality  of  the 
materials  used  was  good. 


TABLE  OF  ANALYSES. 


Station  Number. 

NITROGEN. 

PHOSPHORIC  ACID. 

Potash. 

Cost  per  Ton. 

Valuation  at 
Station’s  Prices. 

| Value  Exceeds 
j Cost. 

From 

Nitrates. 

From  Am- 
monia Salts.  1 

From  Organic 
Matter. 

Soluble  in 
Water. 

Soluble  in 
Citrate  of  Am- 
monia. 

Insoluble. 

Total  Avail- 
able. 

5061 

1.48 

0.28 

1.76 

7.04 

0.77 

1.50 

7.81 

7.39 

$32.00 

$29.10 

—$2.90' 

5062 

0.78 

0.11 

1.03 

7.36 

1.21 

1.61 

8.57 

3.18 

20.00 

21.04 

-f  1.04 

5063 

1.18 

0.16 

0.33 

6.92 

0.65 

1.36 

7.57 

9.27 

28.00 

24.09 

— 3.91 

15 


The  average  cost  per  ton  is  $26.66,  and  the  average  valuation 
$24.74,  or  a cost  $1.92  per  ton  higher  than  the  Station’s  valuation. 
The  average  cost  per  pound  of  the  constituents  is  18  5 cents  for  nitro- 
gen, 7 cents  for  available  phosphoric  acid,  and  5 cents  for  potash. 
If  the  average  cost  per  pound  of  the  elements  contained  in  the  home 
mixtures  were  applied,  the  cost  would  be  $22.02  per  ton,  or  $4.64 
less  than  was  actually  paid ; that  is,  these  farmers  paid  the  manufac- 
turers $4.64  per  ton  for  mixing  an  average- grade  fertilizer.  If  the 
amount  of  plant-food  contained  in  one  ton  of  a mixture  of  this  brand 
had  been  bought  in  the  usual  manner,  through  local  dealers,  and  on 
credit,  the  cost  would  have  been  $35.57,  or  $8.91  greater  than  was 
actually  paid.  This  method  of  buying,  while  it  is  shown  to  be  less 
desirable  than  the  buying  of  materials  and  mixing  at  home,  since 
the  mechanical  condition  is  poorer,  the  composition  lower,  and  the 
price  higher,  is  a great  improvement  on  the  general  method  now  com- 
monly practiced. 

V. 

Trade  Values  of  Fertilizing  Ingredients  for  1893. 

At  a meeting  of  Stations’  Directors  and  Chemists,  the  following 
schedule  was  arranged  for  use  in  Connecticut,  Massachusetts,  Rhode 
Island  and  New  Jersey  during  the  season  of  1893  : 

Schedule  ©f  Trade  Values  Adopted  by  Experiment  Stations  for  1893. 

Cts.  per  pound. 


Nitrogen  in  Ammonia  Salts 17 

“ “ Nitrates 15| 

Organic  Nitrogen  in  dried  and  fine  ground  fish,  meat  and  blood 

and  in  mixed  fertilizers 17£ 

“ “ “ castor  pomace  and  cotton-seed  meal 16J 

“ fine  ground  bone  tankage 15 

“ “ “ fine-medium  bone  and  tankage 12 

“ “ “ medium  bone  and  tankage 9 

“ “ “ coarser  bone  and  tankage 7 

“ “ “ horn  shavings,  hair  and  coarse  fish  scrap 7 

Phosphoric  Acid,  soluble  in  water 6J 

“ “ “ “ ammonium  citrate* 6J 


*The  solubility  of  phosphates,  in  ammonium  citrate  solutions,  is  seriously  affected  by  heat. 
An  Act  of  the  Legislature  (see  Laws  of  New  Jersey,  1874,  page  90)  provides  that  in  this  determi- 
nation the  temperature  used  shall  not  exceed  100°  Fah.;  in  Connecticut,  Rhode  Island  and 
Massachusetts  150°  Fah.  has  been  adopted.  The  higher  the  temperature  the  larger  will  be  the 
percentage  of  phosphoric  acid  dissolved  by  ammonium  citrate  solutions,  and  the  larger  the 
amount  of  this  so-called  “ reverted  ” phosphoric  acid  in  a ton  of  superphosphate  the  lower  wilb 
be  the  price  per  pound  of  said  acid.  Consequently  the  Station’s  valuations  of  phosphoric  acid, 
soluble  In  ammonium  citrate,  have  been  fixed  at  six  cents  per  pound  for  Connecticut,  Massa- 
chusetts and  Rhode  Island,  and  at  six  and  one-half  cents  per  pound  for  New  Jersey. 


16 


Cts.  per  pound. 


Phosphoric  Acid,  insoluble,  in  fine  bone  and  tankage 6 

“ “ “ “ fine-medium  bone  and  tankage 5 

“ “ “ “ medium  bone  and  tankage 4 

“ “ “ coarser  bone  and  tankage 3 

“ “ “ “ mixed  fertilizers 2 

“ “ “ fine  ground,  fish,  cotton-seed  meal, 

castor  pomace  and  wood  ashes....  5 
Potash  as  High-Grade  Sulphate,  and  in  forms  free  from  Muriates 

(or  Chlorides) 5£ 

“ “ Muriate .. 


Valuation  of  Fertilizing  Ingredients  in  Fine  Ground  Feeds. 

Organic  Nitrogen 16£ 

Phosphoric  Acid 5 

Potash 5? 

The  Station’s  prices  for  nitrogen  in  ammonia  salts  and  for  available 
phosphoric  acid  were  slightly  reduced  this  year,  owing  to  the  lower 
wholesale  quotations  which  ruled  for  materials  containing  them 
during  the  six  months  preceding  the  adoption  of  the  schedule.  For 
similar  reasons  the  prices  for  nitrogen  in  nitrates  and  organic  forms 
increased.  No  changes  were  made  in  the  prices  of  the  various  potash 
salts. 

VI. 

The  Average  Cost  Per  Pound  of  Plant-Food  Constituents. 

The  average  cost  per  pound  of  the  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid  and 
potash,  as  secured  from  the  tables  of  analyses,  may  be  fairly  assumed 
to  represent  the  manufacturers’  retail  prices  at  factory,  and  admit  of  a 
comparison  with  the  Station’s  schedule  of  valuations,  which  are 
intended  to  represent  the  retail  cash  cost  per  pound  of  the  fertilizing 
ingredients  contained  in  the  raw  materials  before  they  are  mixed  to 
form  complete  fertilizers. 

A study  of  the  following  table  shows  that  the  Station’s  schedule 
agrees  closely  with  the  manufacturers’  averages  for  nitrogen  and 
potash,  while  the  Station’s  prices  for  available  phosphoric  acid  are  11 
per  cent,  greater  than  the  prices  at  which  farmers  have  bought  direct 
from  the  manufacturers.  The  average  cost  per  pound  of  the  nitrogen 
and  phosphoric  acid,  in  the  different  grades  of  bone  and  tankage,  is 
^also  compared  with  the  Station’s  schedule,  and  is  shown  to  agree  very 
closely : 


17 


COMPARISON  BETWEEN  STATION’S  SCHEDULE  AND  MANUFACTURERS’  AVERAGE: 
RETAIL  PRICES  OF  PLANT-FOOD  IN  FERTILIZER  SUPPLIES. 


MANUFACTURERS’ 
AVERAGE 
RETAIL  PRICES 
FOR 

STATION’S 
SCHEDULE 
OF  PRICES 
FOR 

1892. 

1893. 

1893. 

cts. 

cts. 

cts. 

Cost  per  pound  of  Nitrogen  from  Nitrate  of  Soda 

14.1 

15.5 

15% 

it 

4< 

44 

44 

“ “ Sulphate  of  Ammonia 

16.5 

17.1 

17 

44 

if 

44 

44 

“ “ Dried  Blood 

15.1 

17.2 

17% 

44 

44 

44 

44 

“ “ Dried  Fish  and  Ammonite 

15.2 

16  3 

17% 

it 

44 

44 

“ “ Cotton-Seed  Meal... 

14.9 

16% 

44 

44 

4 4 

44 

“ “ Dissolved  Bone 

16.0 

17% 

4 4 

44 

44 

fine  ground  bone  and  tankage 

14.1 

15 

44 

44 

44 

44 

fine-medium  bone  and  tankage 

11.3 

12 

44 

44 

44 

44 

medium  bone  and  tankage 

8.4 

9 

44 

44 

44 

44 

eearse  bone  and  tankage 

6.6 

7 

44 

4 4 

44 

44 

Available  Phosphoric  Acid  from  Bone  Black 

6.5 

6.2 

6% 

44 

44 

44 

44 

“ “ “ “ S.  C.  Rock... 

6.2 

5.5 

6% 

it 

4 4 

4 4 

44 

“ “ “ “ Dis’d  Bone. 

6.0 

6% 

4 4 

44 

44 

44 

Insoluble  in  fine  ground  bone  and  tankage.. 

5.6 

6 

44 

44 

44 

“ “ fine-medium  bone  and  tankage 

4.7 

4< 

44 

44 

4 4 

“ “ medium  bone  and  tankage 

3.8 

4 

44 

44 

44 

“ “ coarse  bone  and  tankage 

2.8 

3 

44 

44 

44 

44 

“ “ Potash  from  High-Grade  Sul- 

phate   

5.3 

5.1 

5% 

44 

4 4 

44 

44 

“ “ “ “ Double  Sulph’s  of 

Pot.  and  Mag... 

5.5 

5.7 

5% 

44 

44 

44 

44 

“ “ “ “ Kainit 

5.5 

4.5 

4% 

44 

44 

44 

44 

“ “ “ “ Muriate 

4.2 

4.1 

4% 

VII. 

Methods  of  Buying  Raw  Materials;  Chemical  Analyses. 

The  samples  analyzed  represent  materials  bought  by  farmers’  clubs 
or  individuals  direct  from  the  manufacturers  of  complete  fertilizers, 
or  from  large  dealers  in  fertilizer  supplies.  A full  list  of  these  firms 
with  their  business  addresses  is  always  published  in  the  annual  reports 
of  this  Station. 


18 


The  nitrogen  salts,  with  the  exception  of  No.  5169,  the  superphos- 
phates and  the  potash  salts,  were  found  by  analysis  to  reach  their 
guarantees,  to  be  of  good  quality  and  reasonably  uniform  in  composi- 
tion ; the  variations  in  cost  per  ton  being,  as  a rule,  accompanied  by 
corresponding  changes  in  the  cost  per  pound  of  the  fertilizing  ele- 
ments. In  standard  goods,  when  average  composition  is  assumed,  the 
price  per  ton  has,  as  in  the  past,  proved  a safe  guide  as  to  the  actual 
-cost  per  pound  of  the  element  contained.  The  safest  and  most  satis- 
factory method  of  buying  is,  however,  that  which  makes  guaranteed 
composition  or  the  unit  system  the  basis  of  contracts. 

The  variations  in  cost  of  materials  were  chiefly  due  to  the  time  of 
buying  and  the  quantity  bought.  Quotations  made  on  goods  bought 
early  in  the  year,  particularly  nitrogenous  materials,  were  very  much 
lower  than  those  ruling  when  the  season’s  work  had  fully  begun  and 
the  demand  for  materials  had  become  more  pressing.  Prices  for  car 
lots  of  the  different  materials  were  from  5 to  10  per  cent,  lower  than 
when  ton  lot3  were  purchased. 

As  a rule,  quotations  were  based  upon  ton  lots.  Special  rates 
proved  to  be  no  lower  than  when  such  claims  were  not  made. 

These  facts  emphasize  the  importance  of  a knowledge  of  the 
quality  of  the  various  materials,  the  sources  of  supply  and  the  market 
conditions. 

Summary  of  Practical  Conclusions. 

1.  That  the  use  of  fertilizers  in  the  State  is  increasing , and  that 
the  present  annual  expenditure  of  over  $1,500,000  may  he  very  materi- 
ally reduced  by  a definite  knowledge  of  what  and  how  to  buy. 

2.  That  in  the  preparation  of  formulas  the  quality  of  plant  food  is 
of  prime  importance , and  that  the  proportion  of  the  different  elements , 
as  well  as  the  amount  of  the  application , should  be  determined  by  the 
object  of  their  use. 

S.  That  farmers  can  make  mixtures  which  are  equal  to  the  best  manu- 
factured brands  and  superior  to  the  average— first,  in  mechanical  con- 
dition; second , in  concentration ; third , in  quality , and , fourth , in 
point  of  cost. 

Jp.  That  in  buying  manufacturers’  mixtures  distinct  advantages  in 
quality  and  cost  are  secured  when  bought  direct  from  the  manufacturers 
instead  of  from  local  agents. 


19 


5,  That  the  trade  values  of  fertilizing  ingredients  adopted  by  the 
Station  are  a fair  basis  for  estimating  commercial  values  of  manufac- 
turers' mixtures . 

6.  That  sources  of  supply , time  of  buying  and  quantity  bought , are 
the  main  conditions  influencing  cost  per  pound  of  plant-food  in  standard 
fertilizing  materials. 


FORMS  OF  NITROGEN 

Readily  and  Completely  Soluble  in  Water. 

NITRATE  OF  SODA 
Furnishing  Nitrogen  in  Form  of  Nitrates. 


Station  Number. 

FROM  WHOM  RECEIVED. 

Percentage  of 
Nitrogen. 

Cost  of  Nitro- 
gen per  lb. 

Cost  of  2,000  lbs.  1 
of  Nitrate  of 
Soda. 

5028 

5113 

5076 

5086 

5139 

Moorestown  Grange 

15.90 

cts. 

14.5 

$16  00 

Dennis  Crane,  Roselle 

16.18 

18.5 

*60  00 

Purchased  by  Station 

15.75 

15.9 

50  00 

Runyon  Field,  Bound  Brook 

16.17 

14.5 

47  00 

Swedesboro  Grange..  

15.45 

14.9 

46  00 

5150 

J.  H.  Denise,  Freehold 

15.87 

14.5 

46  00 

5161 

5167 

M S Crane  Caldwell  

15.96 

16.3 

52  00 
50  00 

Charles  Tindall,  Middletown 

15.75 

15.9 

5177 

5183 

Amos  Cardiner  Mill  lien.  Hill 

15.92 

15.93 

17.3 

55  00 
*56  00 

I.  W.  Nicholson,  Camden 

17.5 

5207 

G.  S.  Voorhees,  Mine  Brook  

16.03 

15.4 

49  50 

5290 

Chas.  Kraus,  Egg  Harbor  City 

15.84 

17.4 

*54  00 

5136 

Geo.  A.  MacBean,  Lakewood 

16.18 

15.5 

50  00 

5466 

J M.  White,  New  Brunswick 

15.97 

15.7 

50  00 

5467 

Parsippany  Grange 

15.81 

14.9 

47  00 

5524 

John  A Lay  ton  Liberty  Corner 

15.81 

16.4 

52  00 

Average  Cost  per  Pound  of  Nitrogen  in  Nitrate  of  Soda 

15.5 

* Retail  price  at  point  of  consumption. 


SULPHATE  OF  AMMONIA 
Furnishing  Nitrogen  in  Form  of  Ammonia. 


Station  Number. 

FROM  WHOM  RECEIVED. 

Percentage  of 
Nitrogen. 

Cost  of  Nitro- 
gen per  lb. 

Cost  of  2,003  lbs. 
of  Sulphate  of 
Ammonia. 

5029 

Moorestown  Grange 

20.30 

cts. 

16.5 

$67  10 

5140 

Swedesboro  Grange 

20.22 

16.6 

67  10 

5151 

J.  H.  Denise,  Freehold 

20.16 

15.6 

63  00 

5162 

M.  S.  Crane,  Caldwell 

19.77 

18.3 

72  50 

5168 

Charles  Tindall,  Middletown 

19.98 

16.8 

67  00 

5169 

“ “ 

17.95 

18.7 

67  00 

-Average  Cost  per  Pound  of  Nitrogen  in  Sulphate  of  Ammonia... 

17.1 

20 


FORMS  OF  NITROGEN  INSOLUBLE  IN  WATER 

Furnishing  Nitrogen  in  Form  of  Organic  Matter. 

DRIED  BLOOD. 


Station  Number. 

FROM  WHOM  RECEIVED. 

Percentage  of 
Nitrogen. 

Cost  of  Nitro- 
1 gen  per  lb. 

1 

Cost  of  2.000  lbs. 
of  Dried  Blood. 

5077 

Purchased  by  Station 

11.52 

cts. 

20.6 

$47  50 

5170 

Charles  Tindall,  Middletown. 

12.42 

19.7 

48  90 

5297 

Chas.  Kraus,  Egg  Harbor  City 

11.94 

17.2 

41  00 

5500 

Theo.  F.  D.  Baker,  Bridgeton 

12.88 

17.5 

45  00 

5298 

Chas.  Kraus,  Egg  Harbor  City 

10.67 

*10.8 

25  00 

Average  Cost  per  Pound  of  Nitrogen  in  Dried  Blood 

17.2 

* Contains  1.91  per  cent,  phosphoric  acid. 


DRIED  AND  GROUND  FISH. 


«-i 

a> 

Percentage. 

Cost 

Per  Pound. 

.Q 

8 

3 

fc 

3 

.2 

oi 

w 

FROM  WHOM  RECEIVED. 

Nitrogen. 

1 Phosphoric 
j Acid. 

j Nitrogen. 

| Phosphoric 
Acid. 

Cost  of  2,000  11 
of  Fertilizer. 

5179 

Amos  Gardiner,  Mullica  Hill 

9.48 

1.06 

cts 

14.9 

cts. 

50 

*$29  50 

5291 

Chas.  Kraus,  Egg  Harbor  City 

8.72 

7.77 

17.3 

5.0 

f38  00- 
+38  00* 

5292 

7.46 

7.61 

20.4 

5,0 

5293 

H U H H <<  " 

5.73 

10.14 

19.9 

5.0 

f33  00 

5311 

I.  W.  Nicholson,  Camden 

5.43 

9.43 

15.3 

5.0 

26  00' 

5501 

Theo.  F.  D Baker,  Bridgeton' 

7.01 

8 58 

18.8 

5.0 

35  00 

Average  Cost  per  Pound  of  Nitrogen  in  Dried  and  Ground  Fish. 

16.3 

* King  Crab. 

f Retail  price  at  point  of  consumption . 


COTTON-SEED  MEAL. 


21 


GROUND  BONE  AND  TANKAGE. 


Station  Number. 

FROM  WHOM  RECEIVED. 

Mechanical  Analysis. 

Percentage. 

| Cost  of  2,000  lbs. 
j of  Fertilizer. 

Finer  than 
Ain. 

d 

sS 

.d 

M • 

o>  a 

d 

cS 

A 

t-i  . 

g.s 

Coarser  than 

A in. 

Nitrogen. 

1 

| Phosphoric 
| Acid. 

Average  of  three  samples 

54 

17 

15 

14 

1.74 

29.24 

823  33 

Cl  CQ 

T TT  riom’flA  TTrPPhnlH  . 

93 

7 

3.23 

21.52 

27  50 

OiOo 

5168 

M S Crane  Caldwell  TTT.t - 

46 

50 

4 

3.78 

23.99 

28  00 

5175 

Chas.  Tindall.  Middletown 

54 

23 

18 

8 

3.50 

23.95 

27  75 

5088 

Runyon  Field,  Bound  Brook 

49 

30 

16 

5 

6.13 

9.24 

25  50 

5141 

Theo.  Brown,  Swedesboro 

77 

11 

7 

5 

6.18 

16.85 

37  00 

5299 

Charles  Kraus,  Egg  Harbor  City 

38 

31 

13 

18 

7.45 

5.66 

30  00 

5502 

Theo.  F.  D.  Baker,  Bridgeton 

46 

22 

21 

11 

5.81 

13.87 

33  00 

GROUND  BONE  AND  TANKAGE. 


<D 

Cost  of  Nitrogen 
per  lb.  in — 

Cost  of  Phosphoric  Acid 
per  lb.  in— 

Station  Numb' 

d 

<33 

A 

u . 
2 d 
d-^ 

d 

S3 

A 

<V  pj 

d •<-< 

E 

Finer  than 
A in. 

Coarser  than 

A in- 

d 

o4 

A 

S-l  . 
<D  p 
d-r. 

EHS 

d 

os 

A 

3-1  . 

2 <=> 
.d  •-* 

S 

Finer  than  1 
Ain. 

d 

c3 

A 

3 

la 

8-b 

Ground  Bone  (Peter  Cooper’s) 

cts. 

10.0 

cts. 

8.0 

cts. 

6.0 

cts. 

4.7 

cts. 

4.0 

cts. 

3.3 

cts. 

2.7 

cts. 

2.0 

5158 

11.5 

9.2 

6.9 

5.4 

4.6 

3.8 

3.1 

2.3 

5163 

“ U 

11.5 

9.2 

6.9 

5.4 

46 

3.8 

3.1 

2.3 

5175 

12.2 

9.8 

7.3 

5.7 

4.9 

4.1 

3.2 

2.4 

5088 

Tankage 

15.0 

12.0 

9.0 

7.0 

6.0 

5.0 

4.0 

3.0 

5141 

15.5 

12.4 

9.3 

7.2 

6.2 

5.1 

4.1 

3.1 

5299 

“ # |fffTtt 

19.5 

15.6 

11.7 

9.1 

7.8 

6.5 

5.2 

3.9 

5502 

“ 

17.5 

14.0 

10.5 

8.2 

i 7.0 

5.8 

4.7 

3.5 

Average  Cost  per  Pound 

14.1 

11.3 

8.4 

0.6 

5.6 

4.7 

3.8 

2.8 

DISSOLVED  BONE  AND  NITROGENOUS  SUPERPHOSPHATES. 


PERCENTAGE. 

Cost  per 
Pound. 

Phosphoric  Acid. 

o 

m 

Station  Number. 

FROM  WHOM  RECEIVED. 

Nitrogen. 

j Soluble  in  Water. 

I 1 

Soluble  in  Ammo- 
nium Citrate. 

Insoluble, 

Available. 

Nitrogen. 

Available  Phos- 
phoric Acid. 

Cost  of  2,000  Pound 
Fertilizer. 

5060 

Coopertown  Farmers’  Club 

2.12 

10.66 

0.80 

1.61 

11.46 

cts. 

15.6 

cts. 

5.9 

620  00 

5087 

Runyon  Field,  Bound  Brook... 

2.30 

7.94 

7.71 

0.87 

15.65 

15.4 

5.7 

25  00 

5157 

J.  H.  Denise,  Freehold 

1.82 

5.46 

3.37 

2.62 

8.83 

13.7 

5.0 

* 

5470 

Parsippany  Grange 

2.48 

8.80 

4.58 

3.12 

13.38 

17.5 

6.5 

26  00 

5525 

John  A.  Layton,  Liberty  Cor- 
ner   

1.92 

6.68 

1.61 

3.60 

8.29 

18.1 

6.7 

18  00 

Average  Cost  per  Pound  of  Nitrogen 

16.1 

6.0 

* Ammonia,  82.25  per  unit ; Available  Phosphoric  Acid,  81  per  unit. 


22 


PLAIN  SUPERPHOSPHATES 


Furnishing  Soluble,  Reverted  and  Insoluble  Phogplioric  Acid, 

MANUFACTURED  FROM 


BONE  BRACK,  BONE  ASH,  ETC.,  ETC. 


u 

Phosphoric  Acid. 

00 

o 

a 

d 

£ 

a 

o 

31 

OQ 

FROM  WHOM  RECEIVED. 

Soluble  in 
Water. 

Soluble  in 

Ammonium 

Citrate. 

Insoluble. 

Available. 

Cost  of 
Available 
per  lb. 

Cost  of  2,000  11 
of  Fertilizer. 

5031 

Moorestown  Grange 

13.80 

0.04 

13.80 

cts. 

5.8 

* 

5081 

Purchased  by  Station 

15.28 

0.53 

0.43 

15.81 

6.3 

$20  CO 

5143 

Swedesboro  Grange 

13.72 

0.18 

13.72 

5.8 

* 

5148 

J.  M.  White,  New  Brunswick 

13.18 

0.55 

1.11 

13.73 

6.6 

18  25 

5152 

J.  H.  Denise,  Freehold 

14.92 

0.07 

0.19 

14.99 

6.3 

19  00 

5164 

M.  S.  Crane,  Caldwell 

15.46 

0.20 

15.46 

7.3 

22  50 

5171 

Chas.  Tindall,  Middletown 

13.00 

0.64 

0.79 

13.64 

5.6 

15  40 

5180 

Amos  Gardiner,  Mullica  Hill 

12.42 

4.95 

0.40 

17.37 

5.8 

20  00 

5294 

Chas.  Kraus,  Egg  Harbor  City 

14.30 

0.39 

1.83 

14.69 

8.7 

f24  00 

5468 

Parsippany  Grange 

Theo.  F.  D.  Baker,  Bridgeton 

16.74 

0.15 

0.13 

16.89 

5.9 

20  00 

5503 

16.60 

0.15 

0.08 

16.75 

6.9 

23  00 

Average  Cost  per  Pound  of  Phosphoric  Acid. 

6.2 

*$1.15  per  unit  of  Available  Phosphoric  Acid, 
f Retail  price  at  point  of  consumption. 


SOUTH  CAROLINA  ROCK  AND  OTHER  MINERAL  PHOSPHATES. 


Sh 

<D 

Phosphoric  Acid. 

rO 

a 

d 

£ 

d 

o 

3 

02 

FROM  WHOM  RECEIVED. 

Soluble  in 
Water. 

Soluble  in 
Ammonium  i 
Citrate. 

Insoluble. 

Available. 

Cost  of 
Available 
per  lb. 

Cost  of  2,000  11 
of  Fertilizer. 

5032 

Moorestown  Grange 

14.06 

1.76 

1.30 

15.82 

cts. 

4.9 

* 

5069 

H.  I.  Budd,  Mount  Holly 

10.88 

1.99 

1.78 

12.87 

6.8 

$17  50 

5082 

Purchased  by  Station 

11.96 

2.08 

1.41 

14.04 

4.3 

12  00 

5144 

Swedesboro  Grange 

12.04 

1.29 

2.17 

13.33 

4.9 

* 

5153 

J.  H.  Denise,  Freehold 

12.92 

0.12 

1.36 

13.04 

4.4 

11  50 

5295 

Chas.  Kraus,  Egg  Harbor  City 

9,70 

1.71 

4.02 

11.41 

9.6 

f22  00 

5437 

Geo.  A.  MacBean,  Lakewood 

10.96 

1.64 

2.27 

12.60 

6.7 

17  00 

5469 

Parsippany  Grange 

10.54 

1.73 

1.51 

12.27 

5.3 

13  00 

5504 

Theo.  F.  D.  Baker,  Bridgeton 

9.98 

1.70 

4.03 

11.68 

6.8 

16  00 

Average  Cost  per  Pound  of  Phosphoric  Acid. 

5.5 

*$0.98  per  unit  of  Available  Phosphoric  Acid, 
t Retail  price  at  point  of  consumption. 


23 


GERMAN  POTASH  SALTS 

Readily  Soluble  in  Distilled  Water. 
MURIATE  OF  POTASH. 


Station  Number. 

FROM  WHOM  RECEIVED. 

Percentage  of 
Potash. 

Cost  of  Pot- 
ash per  lb. 

Cost  of  2,000  lbs. 
of  Muriate. 

5035 

Moorestown  Grange 

48.25 

cts. 

4.2 

$41  00 

5084 

Purchased  by  Station 

49.98 

4.3 

42  50 

5089 

Runyon  Field,  Bound  Brook 

51.47 

4.1 

42  00 

5145 

Swedesboro  Grange 

48.84 

4.2 

41  00 

5155 

J.  H.  Denise,  Freehold 

52.65 

3.8 

40  00 

5172 

Charles  Tindall,  Middletown 

48.46 

4.1 

40  00 

5181 

Amos  Gardiner,  Mullica  Hill 

50.20 

4.0 

40  00 

5184 

I.  W.  Nicholson,  Camden 

50.76 

4 3 

*44  00 

5185 

48.53 

5.2 

*50  00 

5296 

Chas.  Kraus,  Egg  Harbor  City 

51.90 

4.5 

*46  50 

5471 

Parsippany  Grange 

49.89 

4.0 

40  00 

5526 

John  A.  Layton,  Liberty  Corner 

51.52 

4.3 

44  50 

Average  Cost  per  Pound  of  Potasli  in  Muriate 

4.1 

* Retail  price  at  point  of  consumption. 


KAINIT. 


| Station  Number. 

FROM  WHOM  RECEIVED. 

Percentage  of 
Potash. 

1 

4* 

0 

s*  ft 

ce  h 
0 * 
U a 

Cost  of  2,000  lbs. 
of  Kainit. 

cts. 

5018 

John  W.  Kline.  New  Village 

13.67 

3.7 

$10  25 

5085 

Purchased  by  Station 

12.70 

4.3 

11  00 

5146 

Swedesboro  Grange 

12.66 

4.9 

12  41 

5149 

J.  M.  White,  New  Brunswick 

12.46 

4.4 

11  00 

5156 

J.  H.  Denise,  Freehold 

11.25 

6.7 

*15  00 

5186 

I.  W.  Nicholson,  Camden 

12.40 

5.2 

*13  00 

5208 

G.  S.  Voorhees,  Mine  Brook 

11.70 

5.3 

12  50 

Average  Cost  per  Pound  of  Potash  In  Kainit 

4.5 

* Retail  price  at’point  of  consumption. 


DOUBLE  SULPHATE  OF  POTASH  AND  MAGNESIA. 


Percentage  of 
Potash. 

Cost  of  Pot- 
ash per  lb. 

25.41 

cts. 

5.7 

5174 


FROM  WHOM  RECEIVED. 


Charles  Tindall,  Middletown. 


<Nr 


03 


o 0^3 
6om 


$29  00 


24 


GERMAN  POTASH  SALTS 

Readily  Soluble  in  Distilled  Water. 
HIGH-GRADE  SULPHATE  OF  POTASH. 


Station  Number. 

FROM  WHOM  RECEIVED. 

Percentage  of 
Potash. 

Cost  of  Pot- 
ash per  lb. 

Cost  of  2,000  lbs. 
1 of  High-Grade 
Sulphate. 

5033 

Moorestown  Grange ... 

49.19 

cts. 

5.2 

$51  50 

5083 

Purchased  by  Station 

48.29 

5.7 

55  00 

5165 

M.  S.  Crane,  Caldwell 

50.00 

4.6 

46  00 

5173 

Charles  Tindall,  Middletown 

50.49 

5.0 

50  00 

5154 

J.  H.  Denise,  Freehold 

50.85 

4.5 

46  00 

5527 

J.  M.  White,  New  Brunswick 

45.88 

5.4 

50  00 

5528 

“ “ “ “ 

48.06 

5.2 

50  00 

Average  Cost  per  Pound  of  Potash  in  High-Grade  Sulphate 

5.1 

EDWARD  B.  VOORHEES, 

Director. 


New  Brunswick,  N.  J.,  July  1st,  1893, 


Oy 


t /t?6 


INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  CUCURBS. 
<(MELONS,  SQUASHES,  PUMPKINS,  CUCUMBERS,  ETC.) 


NEW  JERSEY 

Agricultural  College 


94 


NEW  JERSEY  AGRICULTURAL  COLLEGE  EXPERIMENT  STATION 


BOARD  OF  CONTROL. 


The  Board  of  Trustees  of  Rutgers  College  in  New  Jersey. 


EXECUTIVE  COMMITTEE  OF  THE  BOARD. 

AUSTIN  SCOTT,  Ph.D.,  LL.D.,  President  of  Rutgers  College,  Chairman. 
Hon.  GEORGE  C.  LUDLOW,  HENRY  R.  BALDWIN,  M.D. 

Hon.  HENRY  W.  BOOKSTAVER,  LL.D.,  JAMES  NEILSON,  Esq. 


' STAFF  OF  THE  STATION. 


AUSTIN  SCOTT,  Ph.D.,  LL.D.,  Director. 

Prof.  JULIUS  NELSON,  Ph.D.,  Biologist. 

Prof.  BYRON  D.  HALSTED,  Sc.D.,  Botanist  and  Horticulturist. 
Prof.  JOHN  B.  SMITH,  Sc.D.,  Entomologist. 

ELISHA  A.  JONES,  B.S.,  Superintendent  of  College  Farm. 
IRVING  S.  UPSON,  A.M.,  Disbursing  Clerk  and  Librarian. 
LEONORA  E.  BURWELL,  Clerk  to  the  Director. 


NEW  JERSEY 


Agricultural  College  Experiment  Station. 
BULLETIN  94. 

JULY  2,  1893. 

Insects  Injurious  to  Cucurbs. 

(Melons,  squashes,  pumpkins,  cucumbers,  etc.) 


BY  JOHN  B.  SMITH,  ENTOMOLOGIST. 


Cucurbs  are  raised  in  all  parts  of  the  State ; if  not  always  in  fields, 
for  market,  at  least  in  the  garden,  for  family  use.  Cucumbers  flourish 
everywhere,  and  so  do  squashes  and  pumpkins.  Watermelons  are 
raised  in  considerable  numbers  in  the  southern  counties,  while  in 
several  districts  there  are  great  tracts  of  cantaloupe  or  “ citron 
melons, ” as  they  are  popularly  known  in  South  Jersey. 

All  these  plants  are  more  or  less  subject  to  attack  from  a number 
-of  species  of  insects,  which  always  exact  a heavy  tribute,  and  not 
infrequently  appropriate  the  entire  crop.  In  the  report  for  1890  I 
gave  a brief  description  of  the  principal  species  known  to  attack  these 
plants;  in  part  from  personal  experience  and  observation,  in  part  based 
upon  reports  or  letters  from  farmers  or  upon  published  material. 

In  1890  and  1891  I made  a series  of  experiments  on  the  squash 
borer,  the  results  of  which  were  published  in  the  reports  for  those 
years,  and  which  indicated  the  possibility  of  a method  of  preventing 
injury  from  this  insect  that  would  be  at  once  cheap  and  practical. 

The  melon  louse  in  1891  did  very  serious  and  widespread  injury; 


4 


but  I could  not  in  that  year  add  to  the  account  published  in  Bulletin 
72  of  the  College  Station. 

For  1892  the  study  of  the  insect  enemies  of  these  cucurbs  was  made 
the  leading  line  of  investigation ; and  while  by  a peculiar  dispensa- 
tion of  fate,  the  Aphids,  which  were  so  excessively  abundant  in  1891, 
were  so  scarce  as  to  make  it  impossible  for  me  to  complete  their  life 
history,  yet  the  results  of  the  work  as  a whole  may  be  considered 
quite  satisfactory. 

It  may  be  well  to  note  here  that  under  the  generalferm  “ melon  n 
I intend  cantaloupes,  muskmelons  or  citron  melons ; never  water- 
melons, which  are  always  mentioned  as  such.  “ Citron,”  or  “ citron 
melons,”  are  South  Jersey  terms  for  muskmelons  or  cantaloupes,  while 
the  term  “ melon  ” alone  is  usually  interpreted  watermelon. 

Among  the  minor  pests  is 


The  Boreal  Lady-bird. 

(Epilcichne  borealis,  Fabr.) 

This  insect  is  the  single  exception,  in  our  State,  to  the  rule  that  the 
lady-birds  are  carnivorous,  feeding  largely  on  plant  lice,  and  there- 
fore distinctly  beneficial.  In  all  its  stages  it  feeds  on  the  leaves  of 

the  cucurbs,  manifesting,  however, 
a very  decided  preference  for  the 
squashes  and  pumpkins.  For  sev- 
eral years  past  it  has  steadily  in- 
creased in  number  in  our  State, 
and  though  it  can  scarcely  be 
called  a really  injurious  insect 
even  yet,  the  damage  actually 
done  could  not  be  carried  much 
further  without  affecting  the  vine. 
Indeed,  in  sending  specimens  of 
the  larvae,  August  3d,  Mr.  Charles 
T.  Adams,  Blackwood,  N.  J., 
speaks  of  them  as  the  “ worms 
that  kill  our  watermelon  vines;*7 
so  that,  locally,  they  are  already 
destructive. 

The  imagos  or  adult  beetles  are  about  three- eighths  of  an  inch  in 
•length,  very  convex,  indeed  almost  hemispherical;  dull  yellow  in 


/O' 


Fig.  1. 

a,  larva ; b,  pupa  from  back ; c,  pupa,  under 
d,  beetle.  Enlarged  two  diam- 
eters. (From  a photo.) 


side 


5 


color,  with  four  black  spots  on  the  thorax  and  seven  on  each  wing 
case.  Of  the  latter,  two  are  situated  on  the  suture,  or  margin  where 
the  elytra  or  wing  covers  join,  so  that  twelve  spots  only  are  counted 
on  the  two  wings.  The  appearance  of  the  insect  is  fairly  shown  at 
Figure  1,  d . 


Fig.  2. 

Leaves  of  squash,  eaten  by  the  boreal  lady-bird,  Epilachne  borealis.  Three-quarters  natural 

size.  (From  a photo.) 


The  earliest  date  at  which  I have  seen  the  beetles  on  the  vines  is 
June  13th,  when  I found  a single  specimen  on  melons  at  Swedesboro. 
After  that  time  they  increased  in  numbers  rapidly,  and  on  June  27th 
I found,  at  Port  Monmouth,  numerous  specimens  eating  the  leaves  of 


6 


melons  and  cucumbers.  The  eating  done  by  this  insect  is  unique  and 
quite  characteristic : a semicircular  space,  from  three-quarters  to  one 
inch  in  diameter,  is  marked  out  at  the  edge  of  the  leaf,  and  the  beetle 
then  begins  its  work,  feeding  on  the  upper  surface.  As  a rule,  the 
tissue  is  eaten  rather  irregularly,  and  a more  or  less  complete  net- 
work remains,  when  another  semicircle  is  started.  The  tissue  dries 
so  rapidly,  however,  that  in  a day  or  two  the  semicircles  usually 
appear  completely  eaten  out.  On  a large  leaf  there  may  be  several  of 
these  feeding-places,  depending  entirely  upon  the  abundance  of  the 
beetles. 

June  27th  I found  one  (the  first)  batch  of  eggs,  laid  on  the  under 
side  of  the  leaf. 

July  5th  there  was  a great  abundance  of  these  insects  at  Port  Mon- 
mouth, very  much  more  numerous,  however,  on  squash  than  on  melon 

vines;  and  now  I found  egg 
masses  in  considerable  number, 
each  with  from  fifteen  to  fifty 
eggs.  These  latter  are  bright 
yellow  in  color,  elongate  oval 
in  shape,  and  set  on  end  in 
loose  clusters  on  the  under  side 
of  the  leaf.  Figure  3 shows 
the  appearance  of  the  egg  clus- 
ters and  of  individual  eggs  as 
well.  I noticed  here  and  there 
a specimen  of  Coccinella  9-no - 
tata , the  nine-spotted  lady- bird, 
busily  engaged  in  feeding  on 
the  eggs  of  its  degenerate  rela- 
tive. 

We  have  in  these  two  spe- 
cies, the  boreal  and  nine-spotted 
lady-birds,  two  closely-related  forms  with  entirely  different  food 
habits,  and  a study  of  the  mouth  parts,  which  usually  emphasize 
quite  strongly  any  difference  in  feeding  habits,  may  prove  interesting. 

In  Epilachne  borealis  the  mandibles  are  quite  well  developed  and 
pointed  at  the  tip,  with  two  teeth  on  the  inner  side ; a mandible 
belonging  to  a carnivorous  rather  than  an  herbivorous  insect.  There 
is  a distinct  though  small  prostheca.  The  maxilla  is  also  well  devel- 


Fig.  3. 

Egg  clusters  of  Epilachne  borealis.  Natural  size. 
(From  a photo.) 


7 


oped,  the  lacinia  and  galea  both  stout  and  prominent,  the  divisions 
between  the  pieces  not  well  marked.  The  labium,  or  lower  lip,  is 
conic,  ending  in  a point,  and  is  set  with  a fine,  dense  pubescence  and 
a few  longer,  tactile  hairs.  The  labrum,  or  upper  lip,  is  rather 
densely  clothed  on  the  under  side  with  long,  stout  hair,  set  in  distinct 
fovese. 

In  Coccinella  9-notata  the  structure  is  essentially  different.  The 
mandible,  in  character,  would  suggest  rather  a pollen-feeding  insect, 
with  its  small  apical  teeth,  prominent  prostheca  and  distinct  molar. 
The  maxilla  is  quite  different  from  that  of  E.  borealis  ; all  the  parts 


Mouth  parts  of  Epilachne  borealis : a,  the  maxilla  ; b,  labium  ; c,  mandible ; d,  under  side  of 
labrum,  or  upper  lip.  Enlarged.  (Original.) 


are  well  defined,  and  the  lacinia  and  galea  are  both  more  or  less 
excavated  or  hood-like.  The  labium  is  truncate  at  the  tip,  and  the 
surface  there  is  velvety.  The  labrum  is  furnished  on  the  under  side 
with  a few  tactile  hairs  only ; but  it  has  a series  of  little  sensory 
foveae  or  pits  not  found  in  the  other  species. 

July  13th  I found,  at  Swedesboro,  eggs  just  beginning  to  hatch, 
and  on  July  15th  they  had  begun  to  hatch  in  numbers  and  to  feed 
freely. 

July  17th,  at  Jamaica,  Long  Island,  I found  a few  larvae  hatched 
from  egg  clusters,  and  noticed,  in  one  case,  that  the  first  larva  hatched 
ate  into  and  destroyed  a large  proportion  of  the  other  eggs  of  the 
cluster.  This  explained  an  appearance  that  I had  noted  elsewhere, 


8 


but  had  attributed  to  other  causes.  It  seems  quite  probable  that  this* 
is  far  from  being  an  exceptional  habit  in  the  young  larvae,  and  that 
the  excessive  increase  of  the  species  is  thus  checked,  to  some  extent, 
by  its  own  cannibalistic  tendencies.  Though  there  was  an  abundance 
of  eggs,  there  were,  as  yet,  few  larvae  here. 

July  22d,  at  Port  Monmouth,  found  plenty  of  larvae,  varying  from 
just  hatched  to  fully  half  grown.  There  are  yet  a great  many  un- 
hatched egg  masses  and  a few  beetles;  no  signs  of  pupation,  however.- 

August  3d,  at  the  same  place,  many  larvae  were  full  grown  and 
were  getting  ready  to  pupate,  though  there  were  yet  a great  many- 
broods  half  grown  or  less.  There  seem  to  be  no  more  unhatched 


Mouth  parts  of  Coccinella  9-notata : a,  maxilla ; 6,  labium ; c,  mandible ; d,  under  side  of 
labrum,  or  upper  lip.  Enlarged.  (Original.) 

eggs.  Of  a lot  of  specimens  carried  to  the  laboratory,  the  greater 
number  pupated  within  thirty-six  hours,  and  in  less  than  one  week 
thereafter  imagos  had  emerged.  The  larvae  are  bright  yellow  in 
color,  with  prominent,  black,  branched  spines.  Figure  1 shows  the 
appearance  of  the  larvae,  while  at  Figure  6,  e,  is  an  enlarged  figure 
of  one  of  its  spines.  It  will  be  noted  that  the  main  process  or  trunk 
has  branches  from  all  sides,  and  that  these  branches  are  themselves 
jointed,  an  accessory  little  spine  being  set  on  the  basal  segment.  It& 
mouth  parts  are  also  shown  at  Figure  6,  a to  c. 

The  larva  feeds,  unlike  the  adult,  on  the  under  side  of  the  leaf,  and 
does  not  eat  the  entire  tissue,  but  shaves  off  only  the  surface  and  cen- 
tral layer  of  cells,  leaving  the  skin  of  the  upper  side  intact. 


9 


August  6th,  at  Cold  Springs,  Long  Island,  found  a pupa  on  the 
•wild  cucumber ; and  on  the  same  day  found,  at  Jamaica,  eggs,  larvae, 
pupae  and  imagos,  some  of  the  latter  in  copulation.  The  egg  patches 
were,  apparently,  new,  while  the  larvae  were  of  all  sizes.  What  I 
«;ould  not  determine  was  whether  the  beetles  that  mated  at  this  time 
were  of  those  that  had  appeared  in  the  spring,  or  whether  they  were 
newly- hatched  specimens  ; nor  could  I find  whether  the  eggs  were  of 
•the  spring  brood  or  from  the  recently- matured  beetles.  Those  bred 


Fig.  0. 

Epilachne  borealis,  larva:  a,  mandible;  b,  maxilla;  c,  labium;  d,  labrum,  under  side;  e,  one  of 
the  spines  or  processes  of  the  larva.  Enlarged.  (Original.) 


in  my  laboratory  did  not  attempt  to  mate,  nor  did  I observe  the 
process  elsewhere  after  this  date.  In  pupating,  the  larva  attaches 
itself  by  the  tail,  and  the  spiny  skin  is  gradually  shed  and  worked  to 
this  point,  forming  an  irregular  mass,  as  shown  at  Figure  1,  b , where 
the  pupa  is  seen  from  the  back.  A front  view  is  shown  at  1,  c. 

August  31st,  at  Port  Monmouth,  there  were  to  be  found  only  a few 
scattering  larvae  and  an  occasional  pupa.  No  imagos  were  seen  at  this 
time  nor  thereafter,  nor  were  either  eggs  or  young  larvae  to  be  found. 

Life  History. 

From  the  above  observations  the  following  life  cycle  can  be  con- 
densed : The  beetles  come  out  of  winter  quarters,  beginning  about  the 
middle  of  June.  They  become  more  numerous  until  July  5th,  and 


10 


continue,  in  gradually  diminishing  numbers,  until  the  beginning  of 
August.  Eggs  are  laid,  beginning  toward  the  end  of  June,  and 
added  to  constantly  until  all  the  beetles  have  disappeared.  I did  not 
try  to  ascertain  how  many  eggs  were  laid  by  a single  female.  The 
duration  of  the  egg  state  is  about  twelve  days,  and  about  the  middle 
of  July  larvae  appear  in  some  numbers,  continually  increasing  until 
early  in  August,  when  pupation  begins.  Imagos  emerge  about  six  days 
later,  and  apparently  seek  hibernating  shelter  at  once,  doing  little,  it 
any,  feeding.  Exceptionally,  specimens  matured  early  in  August  may 
mate  and  oviposit ; but  such  cases  are  rare,  I believe.  By  the  begin- 
ning of  September  all  trace  of  the  species  has  disappeared  from  the 
fields.  For  hibernating  quarters  any  shelter  answers.  They  some- 
times swarm  into  barns,  sheds  or  outbuildings  of  all  kinds ; but  are 
equally  content  with  a bit  of  loose  bark,  or  a crevice  in  a fence-post^ 
or  a heap  of  rubbish. 

Remedies. 

As  the  beetle  feeds  openly,  on  the  upper  side  of  the  leaf,  it  is  easily 
within  the  reach  of  insecticides.  Of  these,  the  arsenites  are  much  the 
most  effective,  and  should  be  sprayed  on  the  plants  when  the  beetles 
are  first  making  their  appearance.  Killing  off  these  adults  early  will 
prevent  egg-laying  and,  consequently,  the  production  of  larvae.  So 
the  season’s  brood  may  be  easily  destroyed  by  a timely  application  of 
the  insecticides.  The  poisons  may  be  used  safely  at  the  rate  of  1 
pound  in  150  gallons  of  water,  lime  being  added  as  directed  in  Bulle- 
tin 86  of  the  Station. 


The  Striped  Cucumber  Beetle. 

( Diabrotica  vittata,  Fabr.) 

This  is  one  of  the  best  known  of  the  insects  injurious  to  the 
cucurbs,  and  in  some  States  is  the  most  destructive.  It  has  never 
been  as  troublesome  in  New  Jersey  as  it  has  been  in  Ohio,  Iowa,  and 
in  some  other  of  the  Western  States;  but  yet  it  does  considerable 
injury  each  year  without  causing  special  complaint.  It  is  one  of  those 
insects  to  which  farmers  have  become  accustomed  to  pay  toll,  and^ 
unless  the  exactions  are  unusual,  no  complaint  is  made. 


11 


May  30th,  at  Swedesboro,  I found  that  melons  were  well  up  in 
most  patches,  and  were  putting  forth  the  middle  leaf.  Many  of  the 
striped  beetles  were  about,  and  copulation  was  quite  general.  The 
seed-leaves  were  considerably  eaten  on  the  under  side,  and  here  and 
there  the  stems  were  scarred ; but  this  injury  was  as  nothing  com- 
pared to  the  destruction  caused  by  the  “ damping  off,”  a disease  which 
attacks  the  plant  at  the  surface  and  kills  it  in  short  order. 

June  13th  the  beetles  had  increased  in  number;  but  the  plants 
were  now  generally  well  able  to  take  care  of  themselves. 

June  27th  the  beetles  were  plentiful  at  Port  Monmouth.  They  had 
eaten  the  seed-leaves  badly,  and  had  eaten  into  the  stem  in  some  cases ; 
but  had  done  no  permanent  injury. 

July  15th  I found  the  beetles  very  abundant  on  melons  at  Esopus, 
N.  Y.,  and  they  were  said  to  have  been  yet  more  plentiful  early  in  the 
season.  At  this  time  they  frequent  the  blossoms  of  the  squash,  and 
a great  many  can  be  found  each  morning  in  the  closed  flowers  of  the 
preceding  day. 

July  17th  the  beetles  were  plentiful  at  Jamaica,  Long  Island, 
especially  on  late  plantings  of  squashes,  and  were  busily  eating  the 
seed-leaves  and  into  the  stem.  I made  here  a diligent  search  for 
larvae  in  the  roots,  but  found  none,  the  roots  of  all  the  plants  exam- 
ined being  free  from  all  trace  of  injury  of  any  sort;  though  there 
had  been  insects  enough  on  the  plants,  as  the  eaten  leaves  testified. 

July  21st  I found  the  beetles  plentiful  at  Metuchen.  In  looking 
for  other  species  I sliced  up  several  squash  vines,  and  found  no  trace 
of  the  larvae  of  this  insect  on  the  roots  anywhere;  nor  did  I find 
either  larvae  or  pupae  in  the  soil  about  the  roots.  I did  find,  however, 
a specimen  of  the  beetle  which  had  been  killed  by  a dipterous  para- 
site. The  larva  had,  evidently,  fed  in  the  body  cavity  of  the  beetle, 
and  in  pupating  had  burst  the  abdominal  walls.  The  beetle  was 
attached  by  its  claws  to  the  under  side  of  a leaf,  apparently  having 
fixed  itself  firmly  in  place  when  the  internal  convulsions  approached. 
Though  I searched  carefully  then  and  later,  at  Metuchen  and  else- 
where, I never  found  another  specimen  so  parasitized,  and  the  single 
example  taken  I failed  to  breed.  It  is  not  likely,  therefore,  that  we 
have  here  an  active  ally  in  the  task  of  controlling  the  Diabrotica. 

July  22d,  found  one  larva  on  the  root  of  a squash  vine  at  Port 
Monmouth.  It  was  lying  in  a channel  which  it  had  eaten  through 


12 


the  bark,  and  there  were  other  similar  channels  or  irregular  grooves 
on  other  parts  of  the  root ; though  I could  find  no  other  specimens. 
The  larva  is  white,  very  slender,  with  a horny,  brown  head  and 
obtuse  tail,  very  well  shown  in  Figure  7. 

August  3d  I again  searched  very  thor- 
oughly in  the  same  squash-field  at  Port 
Monmouth.  The  crop  had  been  gath- 
ered, many  of  the  vines  were  infested  by 
borers,  and  the  patch  had  been  left  to  run 
to  (weed)  seed.  I dealt  very  freely  with 
T Ilf  t m the  plants  under  the  circumstances,  and 
l f . | in  dug  or  pulled  up  and  closely  examined  a 

1 fj  large  number.  The  striped  beetles  were 

very  abundant,  and  were  mating  freely ; 
but  no  trace  of  a larva  was  discoverable 
on  any  of  the  plants — not  even  an  eating 
on  the  roots  to  indicate  that  any  had  ever 
been  present. 

August  6th.  Found  the  beetles  very 
abundant  and  mating  in  the  squash  fields 
at  Jamaica,  Long  Island,  and  here  also  I 
failed  to  find  larvae. 

August  31st  I made  another  attempt  to  find  larvae  in  a melon  field 
at  Port  Monmouth ; but,  though  there  were  beetles  enough,  the  roots 
were  clean  and  sound,  showing  no  trace  either  of  borings  or  of  surface- 
eatings  other  than  such  as  were  near  the  crown  and  were  due  to  the 
beetles. 

October  17th,  at  Esopus,  N.  Y.,  I found  the  melon  vines  all  off  the 
ground  and  the  field  plowed.  Rosettes  of  wild  cruciferae,  mustards 
and  other  allied  forms  were  rather  abundant,  and  beneath  these  I 
found  a considerable  number  of  the  striped  beetles,  feeding  freely  on 
the  under  side  of  the  leaves.  I saw  no  mating,  and  on  the  roots  of 
the  mustards  pulled  up  I found  neither  larvae  nor  signs  of  their 
presence. 

The  foregoing  record,  though  it  adds  nothing  to  our  knowledge  of 
the  life  history  of  the  insect,  is  not  without  interest.  It  does  not 
even  confirm,  nor  does  it  really  contradict  what  has  been  previously 
written  concerning  it.  It  proves  that  there  is  no  reason  to  fear  injury 
from  the  larvae  in  New  Jersey,  and  that  even  where  the  beetles  are 


Fig.  7. 

Larva  of  striped  beetle:  1,  from 
above ; 2,  from  side.  Enlarged. 


13 


abundant  the  cucurbs  will  run  away  from  or  outgrow  damage  once 
they  get  a fair  start.  We  can  condense  the  life  history  of  the  insect 
as  follows : 

Life  History. 

The  beetles  appear  in  May,  before  the  vines  are  up,  and  are  found 
on  plants  of  divers  kinds.  When  cucurbs  of  any  sort  appear  they 
abandon  everything  else  to  attack  them.  They  first  eat  the  seed- 
leaves,  preferably  from  the  under  side,  hiding  quite  generally  in  mid- 
day in  the  soil  around  the  plants,  and  often  eating  into  the  stem  at  or 
near  the  surface.  Eggs  are  said  to  be  laid  on  the  roots,  and  the  larvae 
are  said  to  feed  on  or  in  them.  Some  do  so,  certainly ; but  whether 
there  is  not  also  some  other  larval  food-plant  is  perhaps  a question. 
Beetles  are  in  the  fields  and  on  the  plants  continuously  throughout 
the  summer,  and  there  are  probably  three  or  more  broods  during  the 
season,  beetles  appearing  as  late  as  the  last  week  in  October.  Hiber- 
nation is  probably  quite  general  in  the  imago  stage,  perhaps  also  in 
the  pupa. 

Remedies. 

The  only  time  when  the  plants  are  in  serious  danger  from  the 
striped  beetle  is  very  early  in  their  life,  before  they  have  started 
running;  afterward  the  injury  is  insignificant  and  easily  borne. 

In  Ohio  and  Iowa  the  beetles  appear  so  numerously  early  in  the 
season  that  the  plants  never  get  an  opportunity  to  come  to  the  surface 
at  all,  the  beetles  burrowing  down  to  meet  them.  In  those  States 
protection  by  means  of  screens  and  nettings,  to  keep  the  beetles  off 
the  young  plants,  is  resorted  to,  and  is,  of  course,  effective.  A very 
much  better  plan  is  to  start  the  plants  under  glass,  in  good  soil,  in 
baskets,  and  set  them  out  when  they  have  begun  to  grow  well  and  the 
ground  outside  is  thoroughly  warm.  This  method  is  not  new,  but  is 
practiced  by  growers  who  are  anxious  to  get  the  earliest  markets,  and 
is  more  intended  by  them  to  get  high-priced  fruit  than  to  circumvent 
the  beetles.  It  is  very  effective  for  the  latter  purpose,  however,  and 
exposes  to  them  an  established  plant,  instead  of  a new  and  tender 
sprout.  Where  the  beetles  are  not  too  numerous,  or  there  is  an  objec- 
tion to  starting  under  glass,  practical  exemption  can  be  obtained  by 
planting  a larger  number  of  seeds  in  each  hill.  This  will  so  distribute 
the  attack  that  little  real  injury  will  be  done,  and  when  the  plants  are 


14 


firmly  established  and  out  of  danger  it  is  easy  to  thin  them  out  as 
much  as  is  desired.  This  is  probably  all  that  would  be  needed  in 
New  Jersey,  where  the  insects  always  give  the  plants  a chance  to  get 
above  ground  at  least. 

In  this  State,  after  the  plants  have  started,  the  beetles  sometimes 
appear  rather  suddenly,  in  large  numbers,  and  considerable  injury  is 
caused  before  the  danger  is  appreciated  by  the  growers.  The  practice 
in  several  districts  is  to  “ drive”  the  insects  by  using  plaster,  working 
with  the  wind.  The  beetles  dislike  this  and  fly  before  it.  When 
it  is  noticed  that  one  farmer  has  begun  to  “ drive”  his  beetles,  his  lee- 
ward neighbors  take  up  the  work  when  their  land  is  reached  and  the 
“ drive  ” is  continued,  until  some  field  is  reached  whose  owner  is  not 
in  attendance,  and  there  the  beetles  remain,  for  a time  at  least.  Instead 
of  plaster  alone,  plaster  and  Paris  green  or  London  purple  is  some- 
times used,  always  with  good  effect.  The  arsenites  applied  in  a spray 
are  yet  more  satisfactory,  for  with  the  underspray  nozzle  the  plant 
can  be  thoroughly  poisoned,  and  the  under  side  of  the  seed-leaves, 
of  which  the  beetles  are  most  fond,  are  thus  effectively  reached. 

In  the  report  for  1890  I cited  cases  where  the  arsenites  had  been 
used  successfully,  and  these  need  not  be  more  particularly  referred  to. 
One  pound  in  150  gallons  of  water  should  be  used,  and  lime  should 
be  added  as  before  recommended. 

The  kerosene  emulsion  has  been  successfully  used  (as  a repellant?) 
by  Mr.  C.  L.  Piker,  Esopus,  N.  Y.  He  writes,  under  date  of  June 
7th,  1892 : “ We  had  a little  experience  yesterday  and  to-day  with  the 
striped  beetle  which  may  be  of  interest  to  you.  Some  days  ago  I 
prepared  my  kerosene  emulsion.  * * * This  emulsion  we  applied 

to  our  melon  vines  (thirty  acres)  yesterday  afternoon,  when  many  of 
the  beetles  had  suddenly  appeared.  This  morning,  although  very 
warm,  and  we  had  expected  a circus,  very  few  presented  themselves, 
except  on  plants  which  had  not  been  subject  to  the  emulsion,  where 
they  were  very  thick.  A sprinkling  of  the  London  purple  this  after- 
noon, in  addition  to  the  kerosene  emulsion,  seems  to  have  completely 
annihilated  them.”  I found,  later,  that  there  had  been  no  further 
serious  attack  on  the  plant,  and  though  there  were  a great  number  of 
the  beetles  about  when  I saw  the  field  in  July,  the  vines  were  then 
well  out  of  their  way.  It  was  at  this  time  that  Mr.  Riker  was  killing 
off  a great  many  of  the  insects  by  gathering,  late  in  the  evening  or 
early  in  the  morning,  the  recently- closed  flowers  of  the  squash,  in 


15 


which  these  insects  like  to  hide.  There  were  from  two  to  ten  or  more 
beetles  in  each  blossom,  and  the  number  collected  and  destroyed  in 
this  way  was  considerable. 

The  persistent  use  of  tobacco  has  also  been  found  efficient  in  keep- 
ing vines  free  from  the  attacks  of  the  striped  beetles. 

We  can  summarize  thus  as  to  remedies : 

1.  Plant  under  glass,  in  baskets,  and  set  out  after  the  vines  are 
well  started ; or, 

2.  Plant  an  excess  of  seeds,  so  as  to  distribute  insect-attack,  and 
thin  out  when  the  danger  is  over. 

3.  When  plants  are  established  and  the  beetles  appear  in  dangerous 
numbers,  spray  with  the  arsenites,  or  dust  with  the  arsenites  and 
plaster  or  dry-slaked  lime. 

Essentials  under  3 are  a prompt  resort  to  the  remedy  when  the 
beetles  are  first  noticed,  and  its  thorough  application,  especially  on  the 
under  side  of  the  seed-leaves  and  on  the  stem  of  the  plant. 

The  Squash-bug. 

( Anasa  tristis,  De  Geer.) 

The  squash-bug  is  one  of  the  oldest  insects  known  as  injurious  to 
the  cucurbs,  and  has  been  so  often  written  about  that  there  is  little 
left  to  say  concerning  it.  In  our  State  it  does  not  rank  as  a very 
troublesome  inject  where  the  cucurbs  are  grown  on  a large  scale;  but 
it  is  sometimes  decidedly  destructive  in  gardens  where  only  a small 
number  of  vims  are  annually  raised.  The  injury  done  by  this  insect 
is  decidedly  different  in  character  from  that  caused  by  the  species 
heretofore  treated.  In  those  cases  there  was  an  eating  of  the  tissue  ; 
here  there  is  a puncturing  of  the  vine  and  a sucking  of  the  sap.  The 
mouth  structure  is  entirely  different,  the  mandibles,  maxillae  and 
labium  being  replaced  by  a rigid  beak,  in  which  are  four  slender 
lancets.  By  means  of  these  the  stem,  leaf-stalk  or  other  part  of  the 
plant  is  punctured,  and  through  it  the  sap  is  pumped  into  the  stomach 
of  the  insect.  The  structure  of  the  beak  is  in  all  essentials  the  same 
as  that  of  the  melon  louse,  which  is  figured  in  the  next  article.  The 
mere  puncturing  and  the  extracting  of  a little  sap  would  not  in  itself 
•suffice  to  affect  the  plant,  for  that  is  very  hardy,  and  readily  recovers 


16 


from  even  severe  cutting  and  slashing ; but  the  insect  injects  into  the 
wound  a little  drop  of  saliva,  which  seems  to  be  of  so  poisonous  a 
character  that  it  causes  the  death  of  the  tissue  around  the  puncture, 
and  a consequent  interruption  in  the  flbw  of  sap.  Where  the  insects 
are  at  all  numerous,  and  the  stem  of  a young  plant  is  wounded  in 
several  places,  it  sometimes  causes  the  death  of  the  vine. 

The  insect  itself  is  rather  obscurely  represented  at  Figure  8,  a 
and  6,  and  is  of  a dull,  smoky- brown  color.  Its  general  appearance 
is  sufficiently  well  shown  in  the  picture  to  make  it  unnecessary  to 


Fig.  8. 

The  squash-hug:  a,  b,  adult  bugs ; c,  pupa ; d,  e,  egg  clusters.  Natural  size.  (From  a photo.) 

waste  words  in  description.  When  handled  it  imparts  to  the  fingers 
a peculiar,  sickening  odor,  which  is  supposed  to  protect  it  from  the 
attack  of  enemies;  and  surely  it  must  be  a curious  creature  that 
would  relish  a squash-bug ! The  insect  makes  its  appearance  on  the 
plants  in  June,  usually  not  until  well  along  toward  the  middle  of  the 
month,  when  the  vines  are  already  well  started.  It  hides  on  the  under 
side  of  the  leaves  or  in  the  soil,  and  is  little  seen  during  the  day.  I 
found  them  on  melons  at  Swedesboro,  in  some  numbers,  July  13th,  and 
there  were  then  also  a few  egg  clusters. 


17 


July  15th,  at  Esopus,  N.  Y.,  I found  a somewhat  greater  number 
of  the  bugs  and  more  egg  patches.  These  egg  masses  are  shown  at 
Figure  8,  d and  e,  and  are  of  a rich  light  golden-brown  color,  very 
handsome  and  conspicuous.  They  are  laid  on  the  under  side  of  the 
leaves,  in  clusters  of  from  twenty  to  fifty,  and  are  quite  securely 
fastened. 

July  17th  I found  the  squash-bugs  very  abundant  at  Jamaica, 
Long  Island,  and  saw  a great  many  egg  masses.  Some  of  these  had 
hatched,  and  one  brood  of  the  young  bugs  was  almost  ready  for  its 
second  moult.  The  young  are  odd-looking  creatures,  with  small  head 
and  prothorax,  and  a large,  prominent,  oval,  green  abdomen,  which  is 
carried  elevated  high  in  air. 

Three  weeks  later,  August  6th,  some  of  the  old  bugs  were  yet  on 
the  vines  laying  eggs,  and  continued  there  until  after  the  middle  of 
the  month.  At  this  date  (August  6th)  many  of  the  larvae  were  well 
advanced,  and  a few  had  transformed  to  pupae.  The  latter  begin  to 
resemble  the  adults  rather  more  closely  ; they  are  like  them  in  color, 
and  have  the  rudiments  of  wings  well  developed.  Figure  8,  c,  gives 
a very  poor  representation  of  this  stage. 

September  2d  I found,  at  Esopus,  N.  Y.,  a few  egg  masses,  a con- 
siderable number  of  larvae  and  a very  large  number  of  pupae  and 
recently-transformed  imagos.  The  recent  imagos,  or  new  squash- 
bugs,  differed  from  those  found  in  the  spring  in  their  lighter  gray 
color  and  much  softer  texture,  the  outer  skin  appearing  to  harden 
very  slowly.  The  number  of  new  bugs  continued  to  increase  on  the 
vines  until  October  17th,  when  only  a very  small  proportion  of  pupae 
remained,  and  no  larvae  at  all  were  seen.  The  imagos  seek  shelter 
wherever  they  can  find  it,  and  live  through  the  winter  in  that  stage. 
The  mortality  among  them  during  that  season  must  be  excessive,  for 
out  of  hundreds  seen  in  late  fall  only  single  specimens  survive;  these 
are  the  solid,  brown,  hardened  sinners  who  will  live  on  to  midsummer 
or  later.  In  tilled  fields  there  is,  or  should  be,  little  shelter  to  serve 
as  winter  quarters  for  these  insects.  In  gardens,  or  near  them,  there 
is  usually  an  abundance.  They  get  into  crevices  in  boards,  in  fences, 
into  attics,  barns  or  stables,  under  or  in  rubbish  heaps  or  wood-piles, 
in  the  mulch  on  plants,  among  the  straw  with  which  others  are  cov- 
ered, and  in  fact  anywhere,  so  that  a space  large  enough  to  admit 
them  is  found.  This  explains  the  relatively  greater  number  of  insects 
appearing  in  gardens  in  spring. 


18 


Remedies. 

Insecticides,  as  applied  to  these  insects,  have  been  failures,  as  a rule:; 
and  no  smell  disagreeable  enough  to  annoy  them  and  act  as  a repellant 
has  yet  been  discovered ; in  fact  their  own  odor  is  so  vile  that  if  they 
can  endure  themselves  they  can  surely  endure  anything  else.  They 
can  be  checked  in  large  fields  by  raking  out,  carting  off  and  destroying 
the  vines  as  soon  as  the  crop  is  off.  Plowing  under  answers  as  well 
or  better.  The  object  is  to  destroy  all  the  eggs  and  young  then  on  the 
vines,  and  to  force  the  adults,  new  or  old,  to  other  localities  for  food 
or  shelter.  In  a large  field,  plowed  early  in  September,  a very  small 
proportion  would  escape  to  go  into  hibernation. 

Nothing  that  may  afford  a shelter  should  be  left  in  the  field  or 
around  it,  so  that  the  insects  will  be  forced  to  travel  some  distance 
for  winter  quarters.  The  further  they  are  compelled  to  travel,  the 
less  the  danger  of  their  finding  the  way  back  next  spring. 

The  earlier  the  plowing  can  be  done,  the  greater  the  resulting 
destruction  of  the  insects,  since  only  the  adult  or  winged  forms  can 
escape.  Nothing  more  than  this  seems  necessary  in  our  State  to 
avoid  injury  to  large  plantations  from  these  bugs. 

In  gardens  the  case  is  somewhat  different;  but  here  also  the  plants- 
should  be  taken  out  and  destroyed  just  as. soon  as  all  the  desired  crop 
is  taken  off.  Plants  left  for  seed  can  be  easily  looked  over  when 
the  others  are  removed,  and  the  insects  on  them  can  be  collected) 
and  destroyed.  All  the  adults  seen  in  spring  should  be  collected  and 
killed,  and  the  egg  clusters  should  be  systematically  collected  and 
burnt.  The  eggs  do  not  hatch  very  quickly  and  are  easily  seen,  so 
that  twice  a week  would  be  often  enough  to  collect  and  destroy  them. 
The  result  of  care  and  thoroughness  in  this  process  will  be  more 
evident  the  year  following,  in  the  very  much  smaller  number  of  bugs 
making  their  appearance  in  spring. 

The  Melon  Louse. 

(Aphis  cucumeris,  Forbes ) 

In  this  State  no  single  insect  has  caused  as  much  serious  injury  to 
some  of  the  cucurbs  as  the  melon  louse.  Cucumber  and  melon.* 
cantaloupe  or  citron  vines  are  the  most  severely  affected ; but  water- 
melons also  are  sometimes  considerably  injured.  Pumpkins  and 


39 


squashes  are  not  much  troubled,  as  a rule,  though  the  insect  is  to  be 
found  on  them  in  small  numbers. 

I had  a few  letters  complaining  of  this  insect  in  1889,  and  quite 
general  though  not  very  severe  injury  was  caused.  In  1890,  when 
plant  lice  in  general  were  abundant,  this  species  became  yet  more 
destructive,  and  was  one  of  those  treated  in  Bulletin  72  of  the  College 
Station.  In  1891  the  injury  caused  was  serious  and  widespread.  In 
Monmouth,  Burlington,  Gloucester,  Salem  and  Camden  counties  the 
destruction  was  almost  complete ; acres  of  melons  were  plowed  out ; 
other  acres  were  abandoned,  and  a few  fields  only  managed  to  revive 
and  to  produce  a late,  ill- paying  crop. 

It  was  not  until  late  in  June  and  well  along  in  July,  when  the 
aphids  had  already  overrun  everything,  that  requests  for  remedies,  or 
for  methods  of  repairing  the  injury  done,  began  to  come  in — long 
after  the  insects  had  gotten  beyond  all  ordinary  methods  of  control. 
On  July  13th  I visited  the  Swedesboro  region,  and  on  July  17th  the 
Port  Monmouth  district,  finding  injury  severe  in  both  localities; 
later,  near  Merchantville,  I found  matters  worst  of  all.  I made  no 
personal  observations  except  on  the  dates  above  named,  and  then  the 
fields  were  quite  uniformly  infested ; wingless  viviparous  individuals 
being  much  the  most  common,  though  winged  forms  were  scattered 
about  generally.  Mr.  Edward  Burrough,  at  Merchantville  ; Mr.  H. 
W.  Bidgway,  at  Swedesboro,  and  Mr.  J.  S.  Carter,  at  Port  Mon- 
mouth, were  good  enough  to  show  me  over  the  infested  districts  in 
their  respective  localities,  and  I found  everywhere  a uniformity  of 
testimony  on  one  important  point : the  insects  are  not  noticed  in  the 
fields  until  the  vines  have  started  running,  and  always  on  scattered 
hills  here  and  there ; sometimes  only  on  one  or  two  in  a large  field. 
These  act  as  centers  of  infection,  and  the  lice  spread  from  them  with 
startling  rapidity.  There  was  a general  tendency  in  1891  to  charge 
the  plant  lice  with  all  the  injury  observed  on  the  cucurbs;  but  in 
many  a melon  field  examined  by  me,  though  aphids  were  abundant 
enough,  they  had  by  no  means  caused  the  general  dying  off  among 
the  vines,  which  was  rather  to  be  attributed  to  a bacterial  disease 
attacking  them  at  or  a little  below  the  surface  of  the  ground.  I 
found,  at  Port  Monmouth,  that  parasites  and  other  insect  enemies  of 
the  lice  were  increasing  at  such  a rapid  rate  that  I felt  justified  in 
saying  that  the  worst  of  the  attack  was  over,  and  that  there  would  be 
little  further  spread.  My  prediction  was  verified,  for  Mr.  Carter 


20 


wrote  me  September  1st : “ Very  singular,  they  did  not  spread  out 
on  new  vines  after  about  the  time  you  were  here  [July  17th],  By 
the  first  of  August  they  were  disappearing  quite  rapidly,  and  by  the 
middle  of  August  were  about  gone,  leaving  a shed  skin  on  the  leaves. 
There  are  but  very  few  to  be  found  now.”  September  9th  Mr. 
Carter  again  wrote,  in  answer  to  a request  for  specimens  : “ I am 
unable  to  send  you  any  melon  lice  for  the  reason  that  there  are  none 
to  be  found ; all  gone.”  I attribute  this  cessation  of  injury  entirely 
to  the  hosts  of  parasites,  lady-birds  and  syrphus-fly  larvae,  which 
were  all  busily  engaged  in  their  work  of  destroying  the  aphids.  In 
the  Delaware  counties  these  insect  friends  were  very  much  less 
abundant,  and,  though  a factor  in  checking  injury,  at  no  time  got  the 
upper  hand,  so  as  to  really  stop  the  steady  increase  of  the  lice. 

Attempts  to  destroy  the  aphids  had  been  made  by  some  growers, 
whale-oil  soap  and  kerosene  emulsion  being  used;  and  while  both 
were  found  effective,  the  complaint  was  of  the  difficulty  of  reaching 
the  lice  on  the  under  side  of  the  leaves. 

In  Bulletin  72  of  the  College  Station  I hazarded  the  conjecture 
that  the  species  might  have  an  alternate  food  plant,  and  also  men- 
tioned Prof.  Forbes’  suggestion  that  it  might  winter  in  the  ground. 
Both  of  these  theories  I resolved  to  put  to  the  test  in  1892,  and  con- 
cluded, also,  that  it  would  be  better  not  to  rely  upon  being  notified  of 
the  first  appearance  of  the  lice  by  growers. 


Field  Record. 

Field  work  began  May  21st  by  a visit  to  Swedesboro.  There  were 
very  few  melons  up  as  yet,  and  no  signs  of  aphids  on  them.  Mr. 
Weatherby,  a large  grower,  said  that  the  lice  are  first  on  the  roots, 
and  that  he  has  frequently  seen  them  there ; that  they  are  attended 
by  ants,  and  that  he  has  seen  the  ants  carry  the  lice  from  the  roots  to 
the  leaves.  Mr.  Rulon  confirmed  the  statement  that  lice  are  to  be 
found  on  the  roots  before  they  are  on  the  leaves,  but  confined  it  to 
watermelons.  I met  with  this  same  statement  later  in  so  many 
other  localities,  usually  as  to  watermelons,  that  I cannot  well  doubt 
its  accuracy,  though  it  is  probably  a very  different  species  from  that 
under  consideration  here. 

May  30th,  at  Swedesboro,  melons  were  well  up  almost  everywhere, 
and  were  putting  forth  the  middle  leaf.  No  trace  of  aphids  was 


21 


'found  anywhere.  Ants  were  abundant  in  the  fields  on  all  the  plants ; 
more  plentiful,  however,  in  sweet  potato  than  in  melon  plantations. 
Pulled  or  dug  up  a great  many  plants  near  ant-hills,  and  found  no 
trace  of  aphids  of  any  kind  on  the  roots ; nor  was  the  investigation 
of  ants’  nests  more  fruitful  in  results.  I failed  utterly  to  find  any 
trace  of  lice  anywhere  in  the  melon-fields,  whether  in  vines  for  the 
first  or  second  year,  or  in  sweet  potato  fields  that  had  been  in  melons 
the  year  before. 

June  13th.  I found  here  and  there  on  the  melons  winged  speci- 
mens of  Siphonophora  cucurbitce,  a much  larger  species  of  louse, 
more  usually  confined  to  the  squash,  and  which  had  never  caused  any 
trouble ; but  saw  nothing  of  the  little  A.  cucumeru. 

June  27th  I visited  Port  Monmouth,  and  here  found,  in  Mr.  Carter’s 
field,  which  had  been  in  melons  in  1891  as  well,  isolated  winged  speci- 
mens of  the  melon  louse.  Altogether,  on  over  100  hills  examined  in 
all  parts  of  the  field,  I found  about  half  a dozen  specimens;  and  of 
these,  one  only  had  given  birth  to  a single  young.  Evidently  they 
could  have  been  on  the  plants  a very  short  time  only.  On  no  plant 
was  there  more  than  a single  louse.  Vines  were  about  one  foot  long. 
Mr.  Carter  thought  he  had  noticed  specimens  a week  ago;  but  none 
were  found  where  he  thought  he  had  seen  them.  Pulled  up  a con- 
siderable number  of  “ extra”  plants,  among  them  some  of  the  infested 
ones,  without  finding  any  trace  of  lice  on  the  roots.  The  specimens 
have  come  on  from  the  outside,  without  much  doubt.  In  neighboring 
fields  I found  much  the  same  conditions. 

On  Mr.  W.  S.  Roberts’  farm  a different  state  of  affairs  obtained. 
Here  some  plants  on  a small  patch  of  cucumber  vines  were  already 
badly  infested.  One  hill,  at  one  corner  of  the  patch,  had  evidently 
been  the  center  of  infection,  and  every  leaf  was  set  with  specimens, 
none  of  them  winged.  A few  surrounding  hills  were  less  infested, 
also  with  wingless  forms  only;  and  one  on  the  opposite  side  of  the 
patch  carried  a few  specimens.  The  insects  were  noticed  a week  ago, 
and  Mr.  Roberts  said  there  were  then  winged  forms  amongst  them. 
The  aphids  on  the  less-infested  plants  were  rather  scattered ; usually 
there  was  one  large  specimen,  surrounded  by  a little  group  of  smaller 
individuals,  evidently  its  progeny.  On  some  leaves  there  were  little 
groups  of  three  or  four,  all  very  much  of  a size,  obviously  deposited 
there  by  some  parent  that  had  disappeared.  I sent  Mr.  Roberts  some 
whale-oil  soap,  to  test  its  killing  power  on  the  aphids. 


22 


June  28th  I found  the  vines  at  Swedesboro  looking  well,  and' 
almost  the  same  state  of  affairs  existing,  as  to  plant  lice,  that  I found 
at  Port  Monmouth  the  day  before.  In  most  of  the  fields  there  were 
a few  plants  on  which  a winged  louse  was  found,  and  others  on  which 
one  or  two  leaves  were  set  with  wingless,  viviparous  females.  Wherever 
this  occurred  the  winged  forms  had  disappeared. 

There  seems  little  doubt  that  from  somewhere  a few  winged  lice 
appear  some  time  in  June.  These  get  into  the  fields  and  bring  forth 
a few  living  young.  Sometimes  they  remain  on  one  leaf,  but  perhaps 
more  usually  they  migrate  again,  to  start  another  colony  elsewhere. 
From  the  colonies  thus  started  the  insects  spread. 

July  5th,  at  Port  Monmouth,  all  the  aphids  had  disappeared  from 
the  melon  and  cucumber  vines  in  all  the  fields  examined.  Not  a 
single  specimen  in  any  stage  could  be  found  anywhere.  Since  my 
visit  of  June  27th  there  had  been  a series  of  cyclonic  storms  and  cold 
rains,  which  had  whipped  the  vines  about  rather  freely,  and  now  not 
an  aphid  remained.  Exactly  how  much  of  this  state  of  affairs  was  to- 
be  attributed  to  the  weather  I cannot  say.  Mr.  Roberts  informed  me 
that  he  had  received  and  used  the  whale-oil  soap,  and  that  with  it  he 
had  checked  the  spread  of  the  insects  on  his  cucumbers.  The  general 
disappearance  of  the  insects  elsewhere  made  this  evidence  less  valu- 
able than  it  might  have  been  otherwise. 

July  13th  found  the  fields  at  Swedesboro  equally  free  from  plant 
lice.  Not  a single  specimen,  nor  any  indication  of  any,  could  be 
found.  Mr.  Ridgway  had  not  heard  of  injury  being  done  anywhere,, 
and  had  seen  nothing  of  any  himself. 

July  15th,  at  Esopus,  N.  Y.,  no  lice  were  seen  on  that  portion  of  & 
thirty- acre  field  examined  by  me. 

July  17th  found  at  Jamaica,  Long  Island,  a few  specimens  of  the 
Siphonophora  on  squash,  but  no  trace  of  the  melon  louse.  My  chances 
for  learning  anything  of  the  insects  that  season  looked  rather  slim. 

Nothing  was  found  at  Port  Monmouth  July  22d,  on  fields  which 
a year  ago  were  swarming  with  lice,  and  exemption  from  aphid- attack 
still  continued  August  3d. 

August  24th  Mr.  C.  L.  Riker  wrote  me  from  Esopus  as  follows  t 
“The  lice  have  suddenly  appeared  on  our  melons  in  such  numbers 
that,  if  we  do  not  succeed  in  checking  them  within  a few  days,  they 
are  going  to  completely  ruin  our  crop,  even  blackening  the  melons  and 
the  ground  beneath  the  vine.” 


23 


As  soon  as  was  possible — August  31st — I went  to  Port  Monmouth,, 
to  see  if  perchance  the  insects  had  appeared  there;  but  I found  no 
trace  of  them  in  any  form.  Melons  were  a short  crop  and  were 
ripening;  the  best  of  the  early  crop  perhaps  already  shipped. 

September  2d  went  to  Esopus.  I found  that  on  the  thirty-acre 
field  the  lice  had  started  on  the  northwest  corner,  which  I had  not 
reached  on  my  previous  visit,  and  for  a week  or  ten  days  after  they 
were  noticed  had  moved  slowly.  Then  the  effect  of  the  injury  caused 
by  them  became  apparent,  and  the  leaves  dried  up  and  became  brown 
and  lifeless.  These  plants  were  then  abandoned  by  the  lice,  and 
almost  the  entire  field  became  infested  in  a few  days.  At  this  date 
there  were  few  of  the  aphids  where  the  start  was  made,  and  most  of 
the  plants  were  dead  or  nearly  so;  so  far  gone,  at  any  rate,  that  no 
more  fruit  would  be  matured.  Elsewhere  in  the  field  there  were 
aphids  in  abundance;  winged  forms  were  most  plentiful  in  the  por- 
tions last  attacked,  while  in  the  places  to  which  they  first  spread  pupae- 
were  most  numerous.  Wingless,  viviparous  forms  were  the  most 
abundant  everywhere,  and  there  were,  of  course,  any  quantity  of 
young  or  larval  forms.  In  small  numbers  the  insects  were  found  on 
the  leaves  of  squashes,  mostly  in  the  winged  form,  though  a few  had 
begun  to  breed.  I found  also  a considerable  number  of  specimens,, 
largely  winged,  on  the  wild  cruciferae,  mostly  mustards,  that  were 
abundant  all  over  the  field.  Some  of  these  were  breeding,  and  I 
found  all  stages,  from  the  smallest  larva  to  the  pupa  and  winged 
form.  It  was  apparent  that  the  species  is  quite  able  to  support  life 
on  these  weeds.  Of  parasites  there  were  only  a few;  but  there  were 
considerable  numbers  of  “ lady-birds, ” with  their  larvae,  busily 
engaged  in  feeding  on  the  lice.  Of  these  I collected  Coccinella 
novemnotata , Cycloneda  sanguined,  Hippodamia  convergens , H paren- 
thesis and  H.  13-punctata.  H.  convergens  was  much  the  most  com- 
mon, while  H.  13-punctata  was  the  least  abundant  of  the  species. 
They  were,  however,  far  behind  the  van  of  the  plant  lice,  and  could 
not,  under  ordinary  circumstances,  so  increase  as  to  be  of  any  real  use 
as  a check  until  late  in  the  season. 

I found,  also,  Siphonophora  cucurbiice  on  the  squashes  in  some  num- 
bers, yet  not  in  anywise  injurious.  They  also  were  on  the  wild  mus- 
tards in  all  stages,  but  none  were  on  melons. 

As  I had  no  facilities  at  New  Brunswick  for  raising  melon  or 
cucumber  vines  upon  which  to  observe  the  insects  continuously,  I 


24 


arranged  with  Mr.  Riker  to  send  me  infested  leaves  at  frequent  inter- 
vals, in  the  hope  that  the  first  appearance  of  the  sexes  might  thus  be 
noted,  and  that  I might  then  make  an  attempt  to  follow  the  speci- 
mens into  their  winter  quarters.  Three  or  four  lots  of  leaves  were 
received,  all  containing  the  usual  summer  forms,  and  then  no  more 
arrived. 

September  7th  I found  at  Anglesea,  N.  J.,  some  watermelon  vines 
on  which  were  a considerable  number  of  these  insects,  mostly  pupae 
and  viviparous,  winged  forms.  Again  I was  compelled  from  lack  of 
proper  laboratory  facilities  to  miss  an  opportunity  for  securing  mate- 
rial to  complete  the  life  history  of  the  insect.  This  find  proved, 
however,  that  the  conditions  causing  the  destruction  of  the  insects 
near  Port  Monmouth  did  not  extend  to  all  parts  of  the  State. 

October  17th  made  another  trip  to  Esopus.  I found  that,  owing 
to  the  cholera  scare,  then  at  its  height  in  New  York  City,  melons 
had  become  almost  unsalable,  and  on  this  account,  and  because  the 
lice  still  continued  their  injury,  Mr.  Riker  had  raked  out  all  the 
vines  and  had  plowed  the  field.  The  vines  were  all  piled  for  com- 
posting, and  nothing  in  the  way  of  aphids  remained  on  them.  The 
cruciferous  rosettes  starting  all  over  the  field  were  carefully  examined, 
and  a large  number  of  the  aphids  found  on  them  were  collected  and, 
later  on,  examined  in  the  laboratory.  No  specimens  of  the  melon 
louse  were  among  them.  On  a large  squash  vine  under  glass,  at 
some  distance  from  the  melon- fields,  I found  a considerable  number  of 
the  species  of  whieh  I was  in  search,  and  carried  with  me  two  badly- 
infested  leaves,  as  well  as  specimens  of  all  the  forms  found  on  the 
plant.  All  these  proved  to  be  only  the  ordinary  summer  types ; 
neither  males  nor  oviparous  females  were  among  them. 

October  25th  I collected  over  an  old  melon-patch  at  Metuchen,  and 
on  the  wild  mustards  then  starting  I found  a few  specimens  of  the 
winged  lice.  Nearly  all  were  the  ordinary  viviparous  forms ; but 
two  specimens  may  possibly  prove  to  be  males  of  this  species  when 
more  material  is  secured.  No  oviparous  females  were  seen,  nor  did  I 
find  any  such  later. 

The  work  of  the  season  is  inconclusive,  therefore,  and  yet  not 
entirely  without  result.  It  gives  us  the  following 


25 


Brief  History. 

Winged,  viviparous  forms  appear  in  the  fields  in  small  numbers* 
about  the  middle  of  June,  starting  colonies  by  bringing  forth  living 
young;  sometimes  on  one  leaf  only,  sometimes  on  several.  These 
mature  rapidly,  and  reproduce,  in  turn,  at  such  a rate  that  by  the  end 
of  the  month  a considerable  spread  has  been  made.  If  unchecked, 
they  will  soon  spread  over  a very  large  territory,  and  injury  is  pro- 
portioned to  their  number.  All  during  the  summer  and  until  well 
along  in  September,  or  even  later,  reproduction  continues.  In  mid- 
summer comparatively  few  specimens  become  winged,  but  later  pupae 
and  winged  forms  become  more  numerous.  Sexed  forms  have  not 
appeared  by  the  middle  of  October.  Their  history  between  October 
15th  and  June  15th  following  is  yet  unknown.  I am  very  strongly 
inclined  to  believe  that  the  late  winged  forms  migrate  to  some  com- 
mon weed,  probably  cruciferous,  on  the  winter  rosettes  of  which  eggs 
are  laid,  that  will  carry  the  species  through  the  winter.  These  eggs 
probably  hatch  quite  early  in  spring,  and  several  generations  may  be 
produced  before  the  insects  are  ready  to  return  to  the  melons  or 
cucumbers. 


Fig.  9. 

Melon  louse  : Winged,  viviparous  female.  (Original.) 


Figure  9 shows  the  general  appearance  of  the  winged  louse,  with 
which  melon  and  citron-growers  are,  as  a rule,  sufficiently  familiar. 
In  color  it  is  deep  brown,  the  abdomen  often  lighter,  or  even  decid- 


26 


edly  green.  The  young  are  brought  forth  alive,  and  are  green  or 
yellowish  of  varying  shades,  but  darkening  as  they  grow  older.  The 
wingless,  viviparous  forms  vary  in  color  from  dark  green  to  light 
brown. 


Injury  Caused. 

The  injury  by  this  insect  is  similar  to  that  caused  by  the  squash- 
bug,  and  is  done  in  much  the  same  way.  The  plant  tissue  is  pierced 
by  a stout  beak,  in  which  are  four  slender  lancets, 
and  through  this  apparatus  the  plant  juices  are 
pumped.  At  Figure  10,  b , is  a representation  of 
the  beak  as  it  appears  in  this  species,  while  at  10, 
o,  is  shown  the  peculiar  pitting  of  the  antenna  of 
the  winged  form.  A single  specimen  could  not 
cause  appreciable  injury  to  a plant;  but  when 
hundreds,  and  even  thousands,  are  at  work  continu- 
ally, it  is  unable  to  bear  the  strain  and  succumbs. 
Did  the  insects  seek  only  to  satisfy  hunger,  there 
might  yet  be  a chance  for  the  vine;  but  whenever 
they  are  fully  gorged  they  elevate  the  abdomen  and 
eject  from  its  anal  extremity  a stream  of  clear 
“ honey  dew,”  and  continue  anew  their  work  of 
pumping  sap,  only  to  excrete  it  again  in  the  same 
way  a short  time  after.  During  a plant-louse 
attack,  therefore,  there  is  a continual  pumping  of 
the  juices  from  thousands  of  points,  and  it  is  not  at 
all  surprising  that  the  plant  dies.  It  is  this  “ honey 
■B1lg*  10  dew,”  or  rather  a fungus  which  develops  on  it,  that 

Melon  louse:  a,  an-  . ° _ . . 

tenna ; b,  beak  of  causes  the  blackening  oi  the  leaves,  of  the  fruit, 
^(Orfginai1)1  and  even  0I"  ground  beneath  the  vines. 


Remedies. 

With  a full  knowledge  of  its  life  history,  it  may  be  possible  to  reach 
this  insect  in  its  winter  quarters.  At  present  I can  only  suggest  cer- 
tain measures  to  be  adopted  in  the  melon- fields.  It  is  fairly  certain 
that  there  is  a migration  from  some  outside  point  to  the  melons  in 
June,  and  there  is  no  evidence  that  there  is  any  later  migration,  except 
from  plant  to  plant  within  a single  field,  or  to  adjacent  fields.  By 
checking  the  spread  of  the  insects  at  their  first  appearance,  practical 


27 


exemption  for  the  season  may  be  obtained.  Fields  should  be  gone 
over  carefully  at  least  twice  a week,  beginning  early  in  June,  and 
every  leaf  at  all  curled  or  abnormal  in  appearance  should  be  examined. 
If  aphids  are  found,  the  leaf  containing  them  should  be  destroyed; 
or,  if  a vine  is  at  all  badly  infested,  it  will  be  better  to  pull  and  bury 
it,  tramping  the  earth  down  well  above  it. 

Should  the  insects  be  overlooked  until  they  have  begun  to  spread, 
the  plants  should  be  very  thoroughly  sprayed  with  the  kerosene 
■emulsion,  made  as  described  in  Bulletin  86  of  the  College  Station,  and 
-diluted  with  from  12  to  15  parts  of  water;  or  whale-oil  soap  can  be 
used,  at  the  rate  of  1 pound  in  6 gallons  of  water;  or  the  fish-oil  soap, 
the  formula  for  which  is  also  to  be  found  in  Bulletin  86,  can  be  used, 
at  the  rate  of  1 pound  in  8 gallons  of  water.  In  either  case  a knap- 
sack pump  and  an  underspray  nozzle,  such  as  is  made  by  Boekel  & 
Co.,  518  Vine  street,  Philadelphia,  should  be  used,  and  the  work 
should  be  very  thoroughly  done ; extending  not  only  to  all  vines  on 
which  the  insects  are  actually  observed,  but  to  all  those  near  by  and 
apparently  yet  free  from  attack.  Thoroughness  at  this  time  may 
mean  complete  exemption  afterward;  while  half-way  work  must 
certainly  be  repeated  if  any  benefit  is  to  be  derived.  The  very 
essence  of  the  fight  against  this  insect  is  to  meet  and  overcome  it 
while  it  is  weak,  and  before  it  gets  a start.  The  difficulty  and  the 
uncertainty  of  complete  success  increase  rapidly  for  every  day  of 
delay.  Arsenites,  it  may  be  said  in  passing,  are  of  absolutely  no 
effect  as  against  this  insect. 


The  Squash  Borer. 

(Melittia  ceto,  Westw.) 

Of  the  insects  infesting  cucurbs,  this  species  is  the  one  most  partial 
to  squashes ; for  although  it  is  occasionally  found  in  all  the  others, 
yet  only  in  squashes  is  it  injurious.  In  these,  however,  it  makes 
havoc,  sometimes  rendering  it  simply  impossible  to  get  fruit  at  all,  or 
only  of  inferior  varieties ; for  the  insect  has  preferences,  and  its 
preferences  are  for  the  best.  Some  growers  have  never  succeeded, 
despite  their  utmost  efforts,  in  getting  more  than  half  a crop  of  Hub- 
bards, owing  to  injury  caused  by  this  insect;  but  even  half  a crop 
pays,  and  planting  them  continues.  Proportionately  less  damage  is 
usually  done  where  the  plants  are  raised  on  a large  scale  than  where 


28 


they  are  raised  in  the  garden  or  in  small  patches,  for  in  the  latter  case 
all  are  quite  generally  destroyed. 

In  my  report  for  1890  I gave  a brief  account  of  the  insect,  and 
made  such  suggestions  concerning  remedies  as  our  knowledge  at  that 
time  indicated,  basing  my  recommendations  in  large  part  on  the 
results  of  the  experiments  reported  in  Bulletin  75  of  the  College 
Station.  It  was  found,  in  these  experiments,  that  repellants  could  not 
be  relied  upon  to  protect,  nor  could  spraying  with  the  arsenites  be 
counted  upon  to  do  more  than  mitigate  injury.  Cutting  out  the 
borers  was  still  the  most  reliable  remedy  that  could  be  suggested. 

During  1891  I carried  on  a series  of  observations  and  experiments 
at  Metuchen,  and  the  results  are  given  in  the  report  for  that  year 
where,  also,  the  experiences  of  Mr.  D.  V.  Van  Nest  afford  valuable 
suggestions.  During  1892 1 made  observations  over  a very  much  more 
extended  territory,  which,  while  they  modified  some  of  the  statements 
as  to  life  history,  based  on  the  Metuchen  results,  emphasize  the  con- 
clusion that  the  insect  can  be  controlled  rather  by  methods  of  culture 
and  by  mechanical  means  than  by  the  application  of  insecticides.  In 
these  observations  I have  had  the  voluntary  assistance  of  Mr.  J.  V. 
D.  Walker,  of  Jamaica,  Long  Island.  Jamaica  is  a great  trucking 
center,  and  near  it  are  many  acres  in  squashes.  Mr.  Walker  is  a good 
observer,  with  a knowledge  of  insects,  and  his  records  and  statements 
are  to  be  relied  upon. 

The  details  of  the  observations  made  have  not  been  elsewhere 
reported,  and  are  in  place  here. 


Record  for  1892. 

May  28th  Mr.  C.  L.  Biker,  Esopus,  N.  Y.,  wrote,  offering  his  ser- 
vices in  making  observations  and  experiments,  adding  : “ I have  had 
considerable  experience  with  the  squash  borer.  In  one  case  a field  of 
squashes,  which  had  cost  me  about  $500,  had  arrived  at  a stage  when 
the  prospect  of  some  mammoth  fruit  was  most  excellent,  hundreds 
weighing  more  than  100  pounds  each,  when  they  were  attacked,  or 
the  attack  became  visible,  of  the  borer.  I tried  many  remedies 
against  them.  On  several  hills  I almost  covered  the  vines  with 
ground  tobacco;  upon  others  used  the  liquid  made  by  steeping 
tobacco  stems,  with  the  addition  of  London  purple,  and  had  a number 
of  men  at  work  endeavoring  to  extract  the  borer.  Within  ten  days 
after  the  first  appearance  of  these  vagabonds  my  vines  were  almost  a 


29 


living  mass  of  maggots,  from  the  size  of  a needle,  an  eighth  of  an 
inch  long,  to  that  of  a full-sized  squash  borer,  as  large  as  a lead  pencil 
and  one  and  one-quarter  inches  long.  Not  one  squash  on  the  whole 
field  ripened  ! We  also  used  kerosene,  but  in  what  proportions  I am 
unable  just  now  to  state.  Also  used  hellebore  and  Paris  green  ; and 
so  far  as  the  tobacco  was  concerned,  with  me  it  seemed  to  attract 
rather  than  repel  them.” 

June  27th  I found  at  Port  Monmouth  one  apparently  fresh  female 
moth  on  a cucumber  vine.  This  is  later  than  the  insect  was  observed 
in  1891,  when  I already  found  eggs  on  the  26th,  but  I was  not  trying 
to  fix  the  date  of  first  appearance.  1 am  satisfied  that  this  covers  a 
considerable  period,  and  that  moths  may  be  found  at  any  time  after 
June  1st.  In  Central  Ohio  Dr.  Kellicott  has  bred  them  as  early  as 
May ; but  I do  not  believe  that  they  appear  in  the  field  in  New  Jersey 
before  the  beginning  of  June. 

July  15th,  at  Esopus,  N.  Y.,  found  a pair  of  the  moths  in  copula- 
tion about  10  A.  M.,  and  saw  two  other  specimens,  which  I failed  to 
capture.  No  eggs  were  found  after  careful  search. 

July  16th,  at  Jamaica,  Long  Island,  Mr.  Walker  introduced  me  to 
his  hunting-grounds,  and  between  6 P.  M.  and  dark  we  picked  up 
forty  moths;  all  of  them  sitting  in  full  view  on  the  upper  side  of  the 
base  of  the  leaf  where  it  joins  the  leaf-stalk.  They  were  easy  to  see, 
and  were  so  torpid  that  there  was  no  trouble  in  capturing  them.  If 
clumsily  disturbed  they  made  no  attempts  to  fly,  but  j umped  to  the 
ground,  where  they  could  be  readily  picked  up. 

July  17th  the  same  fields  were  visited  in  the  early  morning.  We 
found  now  a number  of  pupa  skins,  from  which  moths  had  issued 
that  morning,  sticking  out  of  the  ground,  and  found,  also,  two  cocoons 
on  the  surface,  where  cultivation  had  thrown  them.  Before  11  A.  M. 
the  moths  were  flying  freely  and  ovipositing.  The  latter  is  a very 
rapid  process,  and  is  easily  watched.  The  moth  hovers  over  a plant, 
selects  a spot,  and,  scarcely  stopping  the  vibration  of  her  wings, 
deposits  an  egg,  darting  off  like  a shot  immediately  thereafter.  Found 
the  eggs  on  all  parts  of  the  large  vines  of  the  summer  squashes,  on 
top  of  the  leaves,  on  the  leaf- stalk,  on  the  flower  buds,  and,  in  fact, 
everywhere.  On  small  plants  they  are  on  the  stem  only,  near  the 
base.  On  a small  plant  with  only  six  leaves  I found  seven  eggs ! 
These  eggs  are  nearly  round,  very  slightly  ovate,  disc-shaped, 
the  bottom  flat  with  sharp  margin,  the  top  somewhat  convex  with 


30 


round  edges.  In  color  they  are  a light  chestnut  brown.  Under  the 
microscope  they  show  a very  finely-shagreened  surface,  with  feebly- 
raised  lines  forming  hexagonal  figures.  The  shell  is  thick,  chitinous 
and  very  brittle. 


Fig.  11. 

Eggs  of  Melittia  ceto : a , on  stalk ; b,  on  bud ; c.  on  leaf ; d,  on  tip  of  runner ; e,  on  leaf-stalk  ; 
f,  g,  on  bark  of  root.  Natural  size.  (From  a photo.) 


Mr.  Hulst,  who  has  also  observed  the  egg-laying  habits,  says : 
“The  female  lays  her  eggs  morning  and  afternoon,  mostly  on  the 
stalk  of  the  plant  just  below  the  ground.  She  extends  her  abdomen 
into  the  crack  of  the  ground  about  the  stem  of  the  plant,  and  the 
most  of  the  eggs  that  I have  seen  were  from  one*  fourth  to  one-half 
an  inch  below  the  surface.  Often,  however,  they  were  laid  a foot 
above  the  ground,  and  in  a few  instances,  were  observed  upon  the 
petioles.” 

Mr.  Hulst’s  statements  agree  well  with  what  is  usually  observed 
on  the  smaller  Hubbards ; but  on  the  Crooknecks,  or,  indeed,  on  any 
other  varieties  that  have  attained  any  size,  the  eggs  are  laid  indiffer- 
ently on  almost  all  parts  of  the  plants. 

The  moths  are  easily  recognizable ; they  are  shown  at  Figure  1 2, 
a and  6,  with  wings  expanded  and  wings  closed.  It  is  in  the  latter 
condition  that  they  are  to  be  sought  for  on  the  leaves  in  the  early  even- 


31 


ing  or  early  morning.  In  color  the  anterior  wings  and  the  body  are 
brown  or  blackish  brown,  with  a glistening,  olive- greenish  tinge.  The 
posterior  wings  are  transparent,  glassy,  with  a broad  blackish-brown 
fringe.  The  most  striking  character,  however,  is  found  in  the 
prominently- tufted,  long  hindlegs,  which  are  contrastingly  orange 
colored  and  thus  very  easily  observed. 

July  19th,  in  separating  out  the  eggs  collected  on  the  17th,  found 
a young  larva,  evidently  three  or  four  days  old,  in  a leaf-stalk,  also  a 
very  small  fellow,  only  a few  hours  old  at  most.  Several  of  the  eggs 
were  apparently  infertile,  and  except  where  they  are  laid  on  the  stalk, 
are  so  slightly  attached  that  they  may  be  dislodged  by  a mere  touch. 
Mr.  Walker  informs  me  that  the  moths  do  not  copulate  on  the  day 


Fig.  12. 

Melittia  ceto : a,  b,  moth,  wings  expanded  and  at  rest ; c,  larva,  from  side  and  from  above  ; d 
cocoon,  from  which  pupa  skin  is  extended.  Natural  size.  (From  a photo.) 

they  emerge  from  the  pupa,  and  do  not  lay  eggs  until  the  third  day. 
This  statement  he  bases  in  large  part  on  observations  made  on 
specimens  in  confinement,  but  also  on  field  notes.  He  has  found  the 
cocoons  from  eight  to  nine  inches  under  ground,  to  which  depth 
they  had  been  turned  in  plowing ; normally  they  lie  not  more  than 
one  or  two  inches  beneath  the  surface.  The  pupa  is  dark  chestnut 
brown,  furnished  with  rings  of  sharp  spines  on  the  abdominal  seg- 
ments and  with  a sharp,  chisel-like  projection  on  the  head-case. 
When  the  insect  is  ready  to  emerge,  the  pupa  braces  itself  against  the 
inside  of  the  cocoon  by  means  of  the  abdominal  spines  and  by 
wriggling  about  cuts  off  a circular  disc  at  one  end  of  it  with  its 


32 


armed  head.  It  then  squirms  out  of  the  cocoon  through  the  loose 
soil  to  the  surface  and  into  the  air,  until  only  the  abdominal  segments 
hold  it  in  the  earth. 

This  usually  happens  at  night,  and  in  the  warmth  of  early  morning 
the  moths  issue.  At  Figure  12,  d , is  shown  the  cocoon  from  which 
the  empty  pupa  skin  projects.  This  specimen  had  been  thrown  to 
the  surface  by  cultivating,  and  the  pupa,  finding  no  earthy  covering 
to  pierce,  maintained  its  hold  on  the  cocoon  as  shown  in  the  figure. 

July  21st  I examined  Mr.  Marshall’s  squash-patch  at  Metuchen, 
after  5 P.  M.,  but  found  no  trace  of  moths  and  no  unhatched  eggs; 
found  several  shells,  however,  from  which  larvae  had  emerged. 
Several  larvae  were  found,  ranging  in  size  from  one-eighth  to  one- 
half  an  inch  in  length,  the  latter  plump  and  hearty,  and  evidently 
two  weeks  or  more  old.  I cut  up  one  plant  completely,  and  found 
borers  in  three  joints,  one  of  them  three  feet  from  the  root.  Two 
larvae  were  found  in  the  base  of  a leaf-stalk,  and  one  egg  from  which 
the  larva  had  emerged  was  found  at  the  base  of  the  leaf  itself,  just 
where  the  moths  usually  rest  at  night. 

July  22d,  in  a field  of  early  Hubbards  at  Port  Monmouth,  found 
a short,  under-sized  crop  of  squashes  ripened,  and  the  vines  dying; 
partly  from  borer-attack,  partly  from  a bacterial  disease.  About  20 
per  cent,  of  the  hills  were  infested.  No  moths  were  seen;  but  one 
unhatched  egg  was  found,  in  which  the  larva  was  fully  developed  and 
ready  to  emerge.  Egg  shells  were  found  in  small  numbers;  larvae 
ranged  all  the  way  up  to  those  ready  for  the  last  moult,  but  most  of 
them  were  about  two-thirds  grown,  much  as  shown  in  Figure  12,  c. 
Most  of  the  larvae  were  at  the  base  of  the  vine  and  were  well  grown ; 
smaller  specimens  were  found  in  the  joints,  up  to  six  feet  from  the 
root.  A few  small  larvae  were  found  in  the  leaf-stalks. 

August  3d  examined  a considerable  number  of  fields  near  Port 
Monmouth.  North  of  that  point  I found  a few  patches  where  borers 
were  in  the  hills  near  the  edges,  as  if  an  isolated  moth  had  oviposited 
here  and  there.  No  moths,  no  eggs,  and  no  young  larvae  were  here 
found.  In  the  field  at  Port  Monmouth,  from  which  the  crop  had 
been  gathered,  larvae  were  maturing  rapidly,  and  some  had  apparently 
left  the  vines  to  go  underground.  South  of  Port  Monmouth  I found 
fields  in  which  there  was  little  or  no  crop  prospect.  The  vines  were 
badly  affected  by  the  bacterial  disease,  and  most  of  the  sound  plants 
were  filled  with  borers,  the  majority  of  which  were  more  than  half 
grown.  Some  vines  were  infested  for  their  full  length;  some  had 


33 


been  abandoned,  and  the  larvae  were  then,  probably,  underground. 
The  borers,  apparently,  do  not  care  to  live  in  the  diseased  vines/  for 
the  latter  were  almost  free  from  them. 

August  6th  again  visited  Jamaica,  and  again  Mr.  Walker  accom- 
panied me  to  the  squash-field.  We  found  quite  a number  of  moths, 
one  pair  in  copulation ; but  they  were  very  much  less  numerous  than 
they  were  a month  ago.  They  were  still  most  common  in  the  field 
now  in  squash  for  the  second  year.  Eggs  were  abundant,  and  larvae 
of  all  sizes  were  found  everywhere.  Many  full-grown  specimens 
were  collected  from  a row  of  crooknecks  which  had  been  planted  as 
traps,  and  the  appearance  of  a root-section  infested  by  the  larvae  is 
indicated  at  Figure  13. 

It  is  easy,  though  perhaps  scarcely 
necessary,  to  describe  the  larva  as  a 
fat,  white,  maggot  or  grub- like  crea- 
ture, with  a black  head.  At  this  time 
the  vines  of  the  later  plantings  were 
being  covered  at  the  joints,  to  insure 
rooting.  Mr.  Walker  said  (and  he 
was  confirmed  by  the  farmers)  that 
squashes  will  mature  from  these  joints 
as  well  as  from  the  main  root,  even  if 
the  latter  is  eaten  off  entirely.  Mr. 

Walker  also  mentioned  that  he  had 
observed  larvse  leaving  one  vine  to 
attack  another  on  another  hill.  He 
had  collected  a lot  of  the  larvse  that 
had  matured  in  July,  and  these  had 
gone  underground  in  his  breeding 
cages  some  days  since.  What  their 
then  condition  was  he  could  not  say. 

In  the  fields  we  noticed  that  several 
badly-eaten  vines  had  been  abandoned, 
and  there  were  holes  near  by,  indicat- 
ing that  the  larvse  had  disappeared 
beneath  the  surface. 

There  is  a much  larger  acreage  of 
squashes  near  Jamaica  than  there  is 
in  any  one  locality  that  I have  visited 


Fig.  13. 


Squash  borers  in  main  root  of  squash. 
Natural  size.  (From  a photo.) 


34 


in  New  Jersey,  and  squashes  have  formed  an  important  staple 
there  for  years  past;  usually  making  only  a fractional  crop  through 
injury  caused  by  the  borers.  The  soil  is  decidedly  heavier  than 
it  is  in  those  regions  where  this  crop  is  most  grown  in  New  Jersey, 
and  the  practice  of  plowing  very  deeply  turns  under  a great  many 
cocoons,  and  retards,  though  it  does  not  prevent,  the  development 
of  the  moths.  I account  in  this  way  for  the  great  length  of  time 
during  which  the  moths  fly  at  Jamaica.  That  the  moths  found 
now  are  the  same  that  were  found  a month  ago  is  not  probable,  for 
they  have  been  persistently  collected  day  after  day,  and  few  could 
have  escaped  so  long  a time ; besides,  the  specimens  now  found  are 
fresh,  unrubbed  and  unfaded. 

In  the  warm,  sandy  soil  of  New  Jersey  the  moths  emerge  earlier 
and  much  more  nearly  together,  so  that  after  the  middle  of  July  most 
will  have  disappeared.  It  is  universally  said  by  our  growers  that 
vines  planted  after  July  10th  are  exempt  from  borer-attack;  which 
is  certainly  not  the  case  at  Jamaica. 

Of  the  moths  collected  July  16th  six,  and  of  those  collected  August 
6th  four  females  were  dissected  to  ascertain  the  number  of  eggs  they 
contained,  and,  if  possible,  whether  they  matured  rapidly  or  slowly. 

The  examination  of  the  six  specimens  collected  July  16th  resulted 


as  follows : 

No.  Developed.  Undeveloped.  Total. 

1  50  60  110 

2  94  30  124 

3  10  80  90 

4. 20  64  84 

5  4 10  14 

6  20  64  84 

The  study  of  the  four  collected  August  6 th  gave  the  following : 

No.  Developed.  Undeveloped.  Total. 

1  124  88  212 

2  10  68  78 

3  20  78  98 

4  74  44  118 


As  developed  eggs,  those  were  counted  that  were  of  full  size  and 
of  a light-brown  color,  showing  a chitinized  shell.  Number  1 of  the 
lot  of  August  6th  was  taken  in  copulation,  and  it  may  be  assumed 
that  no  eggs  had  yet  been  laid.  The  very  large  number  of  developed 
ova — 124 — points  to  a very  rapid  oviposition,  and  this  is  borne  out 


35 


by  observations  in  the  field,  the  female  flitting  busily  from  hill  to 
hill,  leaving  an  egg  at  every  point. 

Dr.  Kellicott  had  recorded  the  capture  of  specimens  of  the  moth 
late  in  August,  and  Mr.  Walker  claimed  to  have  found  them  in  the 
field  in  September ; so  that  it  became  a question  whether  there  was 
not  a second  brood  of  the  insects.  I was  strongly  inclined  to  doubt 
it,  but  published  a record  made  nearly  a century  ago  by  Abbot,  which 
I unearthed  in  the  British  Museum,  proving  very  conclusively  that  in 
Georgia  there  are  two  broods.  I asked  Mr.  Walker,  therefore,  to 
collect  a large  quantity  of  larvse  to  test  the  question  for  Long  Island  ; 
and  as  Dr.  Kellicott  was  making  definite  experiments  in  the  same 
line  at  Columbus,  Ohio,  I asked  him  to  let  me  know  of  his  results. 

August  25th,  the  latter  wrote  me : “ On  my  return  home  to- 
day, I find  three  examples  of  Melittia  ceto  in  breeding  cages ; this 
absolutely  proves  a second  brood  at  Columbus.” 

I at  once  wrote  Mr.  Walker,  who  replied  under  date  of  September 
1st:  “The  Ohio  cetos  must  be  a more  enlightened  lot  than  we  have 
here,  as  all  mine  are  still  in  the  larval  stage.  I cut  open  about  a 
dozen  and  found  them  all  the  same.  I caught  one  fly  last  Saturday 
[August  27th]  and  four  the  Saturday  before.  Will  look  again  next 
Saturday.  If  you  wish,  I will  mail  you  some  cocoons,  as  1 have 
about  250  of  them.  They  are  very  easy  to  raise  by  feeding  them  on 
squashes,  which  they  bore  into  and  feed  upon.  I got  forty-seven 
out  of  one  vine  in  the  old  row  near  the  barn,  and  many  of  them  had 
twenty-five  and  thirty,  which  goes  to  show  the  utility  of  planting 
early  rows  where  you  are  going  to  plant  later  on.” 

September  9th,  Mr.  Walker  wrote:  “ I did  not  find  any  moths  on 
Saturday  [September  5th],  and  am  sure  they  have  all  gone.  None  of 
mine  have  pupated,  as  far  as  1 can  see.” 

September  26th,  he  again  wrote : “ The  Empire  State  cetos  must 
keep  up  with  the  Buckeye  cetos,  for  I have  two  imagos  which  hatched 
out  yesterday.  I cut  open  a lot  of  cocoons,  but  did  not  find  a larva 
that  had  pupated,  so  I think  they  must  hatch  out  very  soon  after 
pupation.  The  two  that  have  emerged  are  both  males.  * * * I 

think  this  accounts  for  my  finding  them  so  late  last  fall,  and  I think 
I will  look  for  them  in  the  field  next  Saturday.  I found  caterpillars 
in  the  vines  yesterday  week  [September  18th],  but  they  were  nearly 
full  grown.  In  my  last  letter  I told  you  that  I found  forty-seven 
in  one  vine ; so  I did,  and  did  not  hunt  the  vine  very  closely  at  that, 
else  I am  sure  I would  have  found  more.  The  vine  was  one  of  the 


36 


row  of  old  vines  by  the  barn,  and  I took  about  600  out  of  that  row, 
all  nearly  full  grown,  and  did  not  keep  count  of  the  little  ones  which 
I killed.  I got  all  these  in  three  evenings.  The  farmer’s  squashes 
look  fine  this  year,  as  he  lost  very  few  vines.  I believe  if  he  had 
paid  more  attention  to  killing  the  flies,  and  had  planted  a few  more 
rows  of  early  squashes  in  different  places,  he  need  hardly  have  lost  a 
vine.” 

Again,  on  November  7th,  he  writes : “ I have  been  cutting  open 
about  a dozen  a week  of  the  cocoons  of  ceto , but  have  not  found  any 
pupa  yet.  I guess  I will  give  over  now  until  spring  and  go  at  them 
again,  for  it  is  not  very  likely  that  they  will  pupate  in  cold  weather. 


Mouth  parts  of  the  squash  borer.  From  a camera  drawing.  Enlarged.  (Original.) 

Mr.  Van  Siclen  tells  me  that  he  has  about  2,000  barrels  of  squashes 
this  year.  The  growers  at  Flatlands  lost  all  they  had,  from  the 
borers.” 

November  21st,  Dr.  Kellicott  wrote  me  : “ Referring  to  the  squash 
borer  again,  I may  say  that  more  than  a dozen  imagos  appeared  in 
my  cages  as  a second  crop.  I continued  to  make  captures  in  the 
field,  searching  late  in  the  afternoon  or  early  in  the  morning,  until 
September  16th;  larvae  were  common  in  the  stems  until  middle  of 
October.  I took  one  pair  in  coitu  September  6th.  While  there  is 
no  doubt  a second  brood  here  (and  I suspect  there  may  be  in  New 
Jersey  or  on  Long  Island)  it  is  not  certain  that  all  larvae  of  the  first 


37 


imagos  change  until  the  next  season.  In  proof,  the  following  facts : 
In  a cage  in  which  were  placed  August  1st  twelve  larvse,  out  of  it 
issued  four  or  five  imagos.  A few  weeks  ago  I emptied  out  the  earth 
and  found  several  cocoons  with  larvae,  which  I expect  will  transform 
in  the  spring.” 

It  seems  certain,  from  these  records,  that  in  Georgia  and  the  South- 
ern States  the  species  is  double- brooded  ; in  central  Ohio  about  half 
the  larvae  transform,  and  the  others  lie  over  until  the  spring  follow- 
ing ; in  New  York  and  New  Jersey  transformation  the  same  season 
is  somewhat  exceptional,  only  two  out  of  about  250  larvae  making 
imagos.  For  all  practical  purposes,  the  insect  can  be  considered 
single-brooded  in  New  Jersey. 

The  head  of  the  larva  is  small  in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the  body, 
and  its  food  is  less  the  tissue  of  the  vine  itself  than  the  juices  of  the 
plant.  Half  a dozen  larvae  may  lie  within  a 
section  four  inches  in  length,  in  a mass  of 
fragments  and  excrement,  and  they  will  become 
full  grown,  or  nearly  so,  before  eating  more 
than  a small  opening  to  the  outside.  They 
kill  the  vine  by  exhausting  its  vitality,  and  it 
rots  off,  rather  than  is  eaten  off,  at  the  surface 
of  the  ground.  In  Figure  14  are  shown  the 
fat  mouth  parts,  except  the  mandibles,  which 
latter  are  gouge-like  structures,  shown  at  Figure 
15.  The  most  interesting  feature  is  the  spin- 
neret, seen  in  the  center  of  the  mouth  structures. 

The  larva,  when  it  goes  underground,  spins  a 
silken  cocoon,  in  which  it  rests  until  ready  to 
change  to  a pupa.  The  silk  is  secreted  in  two 
long  glands,  situated  one  on  each  side  of  the 
body,  coiled  irregularly,  as  shown  in  Figure  1 5, 
which  represents  that  of  the  right  side.  The  two 
glands  unite  into  a common  duct  just  inside  the 
mouth  structures,  and  a chitinous  tube,  shown 
dark  in  the  center  of  Figure  14,  carries  the 
secretion  to  the  opening  of  the  spinneret. 

A consideration  of  the  above  record,  in  Fis*  15- 

connection  with  the  observations  made  in  T 

previous  years,  gives  for  New  Jersey  the  laid  over  tbe  uPPer 
following  “d- 


38 


Life  History. 

The  moths  make  their  appearance  in  the  fields  at  or  soon  after  the 
beginning  of  June,  and  continue  until  the  middle  of  July  or  there- 
abouts, ovipositing  during  that  period.  Late  in  June  or  early  in 
July,  from  twelve  to  fifteen  days  after  the  eggs  are  laid,  larvae  begin 
to  appear,  and  attain  their  growth  about  four  weeks  thereafter.  The 
larvae  begin  to  go  underground  late  in  July,  and  are  yet  found  on  the 
vines  well  along  in  September  or  even  later.  They  bury  themselves 
from  one  to  two  inches,  and  spin  a tough  cocoon,  in  which  they  lie 
unchanged  throughout  the  winter,  transforming  to  pupae  in  spring, 
shortly  before  they  issue  as  imagos.  In  exceptional  cases  the  change 
is  completed  the  same  fall,  the  moths  appearing  late  in  August  or  in 
September.  The  pupa,  when  ready,  cuts  its  way  through  the  cocoon 
by  means  of  the  chisel-like  armature  of  the  head-case,  and  wriggles  its 
way  to  the  surface  during  the  night,  the  adult  emerging  in  the  early 
morning.  The  moths  fly  only  during  the  day,  and  are  most  active 
during  the  hottest  part  of  it,  becoming  sluggish  toward  the  evening, 
when  they  settle  themselves  on  the  upper  side  of  the  leaf  at  the  base, 
and  there  remain  during  the  night. 


Remedies. 

The  claims  of  the  various  insecticides  have  been  considered  in  pre- 
vious reports,  and  none  have  been  found  reliable.  Repellants  are 
simply  of  no  use  whatever,  since  the  insect  is  not  confined  to  any  one 
part  of  the  vine,  and  it  has  not  been  at  any  time  proved  that  the 
moths  would  not  dare  any  but  really  destructive  odors  or  vapors  if  no 
other  place  to  oviposit  could  be  found.  Cutting  out  the  larvae  has 
proved  quite  effective;  but  it  is  a considerable  task  on  large  fields, 
though  quite  practical  and  perhaps  even  the  best  remedy  in  gardens 
or  in  small  patches.  In  the  report  for  1891  I recommended  rubbing 
the  base  of  the  plants  to  crush  the  eggs,  and  this  is  a good  plan,  for  it 
keeps  the  larvae  from  that  vital  point ; but  it  is  not  so  effective  as  I 
was  then  inclined  to  believe,  because  the  eggs  are  much  more  generally 
dispersed  over  the  vines  than  my  observations  had  led  me  to  conclude. 
The  remainder  of  the  recommendations  there  made  have  been  proved 
practical  and  effective,  and  can  be  supplemented  now  by  the  suggestion 
first  made  by  Mr.  Walker,  that  the  moths  be  captured  and  killed. 


39 


I would  therefore  recommend  as  good  practice  when  squashes  are 
to  be  raised  for  market — 

First.  Manure  or  fertilize  heavily  and  evenly ; not  in  the  hills  only. 

Second.  Plant  the  land  to  summer  squashes,  preferably  crooknecks, 
as  early  in  the  season  as  feasible.  If  the  fruit  can  be  marketed  to 
advantage,  a full  set  can  be  planted ; if  not,  a few  rows  only  will 
answer  as  traps. 

Third.  Plant  the  Hubbards,  marrowfats  or  other  main  crop  as  late 
as  advisable  without  risking  the  crop,  making  the  hills  between 
those  of  the  early  varieties. 

Fourth.  Keep  a lookout  for  the  moths,  and  when  they  are  noticed, 
go  over  the  field  every  evening  during  the  twilight  and  kill  all  that 
are  found  sitting  on  the  leaves.  A little  practice  will  enable  one  to 
cover  three  rows  at  one  time  without  missing  a specimen,  and  in  less 
than  an  hour  a large  field  can  be  cleared  of  moths. 

Fifth.  When  the  late  varieties  need  the  ground,  the  crooknecks 
will  have  made  at  least  a partial  crop,  even  if  badly  infested  by 
borers,  and  the  vines  can  be  taken  out  and  removed,  leaving  the 
ground  to  the  later  varieties.  This  should  be  done  carefully,  so  that 
all  the  borers  remain  in  the  vines,  and  the  latter  should  be  thoroughly 
destroyed  in  some  way  that  will  kill  all  the  contained  larvae. 

Sixth.  As  soon  as  the  late  vines  begin  to  run  well,  they  should  be 
covered  at  the  fourth  joint,  or  even  beyond  it,  and  the  ground  should 
be  kept  in  such  condition  that  they  can  readily  send  down  suckers  from 
all  the  joints.  This  will  enable  the  vine  to  resist  injury  and  to  ripen 
fruit  even  if  it  becomes  infested  by  a few  belated  borers ; hut  there 
must  he  'plant- food  enough  where  these  joint  roots  are  sent  downy  for 
that  in  the  hill  may  he  cut  off. 

Seventh.  When  the  crop  is  made,  the  vines  should  be  at  once 
removed  and  destroyed,  as  were  those  of  the  summer  squashes,  so  as 
to  prevent  the  maturing  of  any  borers  then  in  them. 

This  sounds  rather  formidable,  but  is  all  very  much  simpler  than 
it  reads,  and  the  practice  was  successfully  carried  out  near  Jamaica 
during  the  season  of  1892. 

In  gardens  it  will  be  sufficient  to  keep  a watch  for  the  moths  and 
examine  the  vines  once  a week  for  eggs.  If,  nevertheless,  they  become 
infested  by  borers,  the  latter  will  have  to  be  cut  out.  Layering  at  the 
joints  should  also  be  done,  and,  where  summer  squashes  are  planted 


40 


with  late  varieties,  the  former  should  be  taken  out  and  destroyed  as 
soon  as  all  the  crop  that  is  desired  has  been  taken  off. 

Where  an  early  crop  of  Hubbards  is  desired,  they  should  be  planted 
just  as  early  as  possible,  and  should  be  covered  at  the  joints  as  soon 
as  it  can  be  done,  and  at  as  many  places  as  may  be  without  interfering 
with  the  fruit.  I have  seen  vines  so  treated  mature  squashes  even 
where  badly  infested  by  borers.  The  moths  should  be  caught  off  in 
this  as  in  the  other  cases,  and  as  soon  as  the  crop  is  made  the  vines 
should  be  destroyed. 

The  advantage  of  the  procedure  above  recommended  is  that  it  not 
only  insures  a crop  for  the  season  in  which  it  is  carried  out,  but,  if 
faithfully  done,  it  destroys,  also,  the  larvse  that  would  produce  next 
year’s  moths ; and  persistently  carried  on  would  in  a very  few  years 
reduce  this  insect  to  the  rank  of  a very  secondary  pest. 

There  should  not  be  in  future  any  difficulty  in  controlling  this 
species. 


THE  PERIODICAL  CICADA. 


( Cicada  septendecim , L.) 


NEW  JERSEY 


Agricultural  College 


NEW  JERSEY  AGRICULTURAL  COLLEGE  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


BOARD  OF  CONTROL. 


The  Board  of  Trustees  of  Rutgers  College  in  New  Jersey. 


EXECUTIVE  COMMITTEE  OF  THE  BOARD. 

AUSTIN  SCOTT,  Ph.D.,  LL.D.,  President  of  Rutgers  College,  Chairman. 
Hon.  GEORGE  C.  LUDLOW,  HENRY  R.  BALDWIN,  M.D., 

Hon.  HENRY  W.  BOOKSTAYER,  LL.D.,  JAMES  NEILSON,  Esq. 


STAFF  OF  THE  STATION; 


AUSTIN  SCOTT,  Ph.D.,  LL.D.,  Director. 

Prof.  JULIUS  NELSON,  Ph.D.,  Biologist. 

Prof.  BYRON  D.  HALSTED,  Sc.D.,  Botanist  and  Horticulturist. 
Prof.  JOHN  B.  SMITH,  Sc.D.,  Entomologist. 

ELISHA  A.  JONES,  B.S.,  Superintendent  of  College  Farm. 
IRVING  S.  UPSON,  A.M.,  Disbursing  Clerk  and  Librarian. 
LEONORA  E.  BURWELL,  Clerk  to  the  Director. 


NEW  JERSEY 


Agricultural  College  Experiment  Station. 

BULLETIN  95. 

SEPTEMBER  11,  1893. 


The  Periodical  Cicada. 

{Cicada  septendecim , L.) 


BY  JOHN  B.  SMITH,  ENTOMOLOGIST. 


a,  pupa ; b,  pupa  shell  from  which  the  imago  has  emerged ; c,  imago ; d,  punctures  in  which 
the  eggs  are  laid  ; e,  eggs,  enlarged.  (From  Riley.) 


This  insect,  under  the  more  commonly- used  name  of  the  a Seven- 
teen-year Locust/’  usually  attracts  considerable  attention  when  it 
appears,  and  generally  causes  a flood  of  literature,  much  of  which  is 


4 


clue  to  a want  of  knowledge  of  the  history  of  the  species.  The  correct- 
ness of  the  popular  term  is  quite  frequently  disputed  by  observers  who 
cite  a number  of  years,  of  irregular  interval,  at  which  they  claim  that 
this  insect  appeared.  The  observations  are,  in  most  instances,  correct, 
and  the  confusion  is  caused  by  the  fact,  not  so  generally  known,  that 
there  exist  within  the  limits  of  the  United  States  no  less  than 
twenty- two  broods,  each  of  which  appears  at  definite  intervals,  but 
counting  from  different  years  as  a point  of  beginning.  These  broods 
do  not  all  cover  the  entire  United  States,  nor  are  they  of  anything 
like  equal  extent.  Some  of  them  infest  a large  territory,  while  others 
are  confined  to  one  or  two  States,  and  in  some  cases  even  to  parts  of 
one  State ; that  is,  the  broods  are  sometimes  local.  Another  confus- 
ing feature  is,  that  in  the  more  southern  part  of  our  country  the 
period  of  development  of  the  insect  is  shortened,  and  instead  of 
requiring  seventeen  years  to  complete  its  transformations,  thirteen 
years  only  are  necessary.  In  some  of  the  border  States  the  thirteen 
and  the  seventeen-year  races  overlap,  and  this  produced  additional 
confusion  until  the  limits  of  each  brood  were  well  understood. 

This  subject  has  been  very  thoroughly  studied  by  and  under  the 
direction  of  Dr.  C.  V.  Riley,  the  United  States  Entomologist,  who 
gave  in  Bulletin  No.  8 of  the  Division  of  Entomology  of  the  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture,  a full  history,  with  the  distribution 
of  all  the  broods  known  in  the  United  States.  As  a result  of  this 
work  we  are  now  able  to  foretell,  with  reasonable  certainty,  exactly 
when  the  appearance  of  these  insects  may  be  expected,  and  are  also 
able  to  say  whether  or  not  the  appearance  will  be  in  numbers  or 
whether  there  will  be  only  a small  brood. 

In  the  State  of  New  Jersey,  four  broods  have  been  recorded,  and 
these  are,  according  to  Dr.  Riley’s  enumeration,  broods  VIII.,  XII., 
XVII.  and  XXII.  Not  all  of  these  are  equally  abundant  nor 
equally  distributed  ; in  fact,  two  of  them,  that  is  to  say,  broods  VIII. 
and  XVII.,  appear  only  in  very  small  numbers,  never  injuriously, 
and  in  very  limited  districts.  Brood  XII.,  which  last  appeared  in 
1877,  is  due  again  in  1894,  and  this  is  one  that  occurs  in  almost  all 
portions  of  the  State  in  very  large  numbers.  Next  year,  therefore, 
will  be  “ locust  year  ” in  the  greater  part  of  New  Jersey,  and  the 
insects  will  appear  in  great  abundance,  but  more  numerously  north  of 
Monmouth  county. 

For  my  present  purpose  it  will  not  be  necessary  to  go  into  details 


5 


of  structure  or  the  life  history  of  the  insect,  and  its  appearance  is 
sufficiently  shown  in  the  figures,  which  illustrate  the  pupa,  the  empty 
pupal  skin,  the  egg  and  the  adult.  The  insects  make  their  appearance 
during  the  last  days  of  May,  or  early  in  June,  and  remain  about  a 
month.  Very  little  injury  is  done  in  feeding,  the  food  consisting  of 
the  sap  of  trees  of  many  kinds  ; but  there  may  be  quite  severe  damage 
when  the  insects  oviposit.  The  eggs  are  laid  in  the  twigs  and  small 
branches  of  deciduous  trees  and  shrubs,  and  fruit  trees  are  especial 
favorites.  When  these  eggs  are  laid,  deep  slits  are  cut  by  the 
females,  and  the  slits  are  arranged  in  series,  one  above  the  other. 
After  the  eggs  hatch  and  the  young  larvse  drop  to  the  ground,  the 
wounds  begin  to  scar  over,  and,  usually  before  the  end  of  the  season, 
the  twig  or  small  branch  withers,  dies  and  is  broken  off  by  the  winter 
winds.  On  well-established  or  large  trees  this  is  seldom  a source  of 
serious  injury,  and  means  in  most  cases  a severe  pruning  only.  In 
the  case  of  young  trees,  and  especially  with  nursery  stock,  it  means 
very  much  more ; sometimes  the  death  of  the  tree,  and  much  more 
frequently  destruction  to  the  shape,  because  the  finest  leading  shoots 
are  always  the  first  that  are  attacked.  The  insects  appear  in  such 
enormous  numbers,  so  nearly  at  the  same  time,  and  their  habits  of 
feeding  are  of  such  a character  that  it  is  impossible  for  us  to  use 
poisons  with  a reasonable  chance  of  success.  It  is,  therefore,  necessary 
to  use  preventive  rather  than  remedial  measures,  and  it  is  to  call  the 
attention  of  the  fruit-growers  and  farmers  generally  to  the  danger 
that  threatens  their  young  trees  and  shrubs  next  year  that  this  bulletin 
is  issued. 

Since  no  remedies  can  be  recommended,  and  there  is  no  practical 
way  to  keep  the  insects  from  the  plants  except  by  actually  covering 
them,  it  is  recommended — 

First.  That  no  pruning  be  done  either  during  the  present  fall  or 
next  spring.  This  applies  as  well  to  shrubs  as  to  trees,  for  the  insects 
will  oviposit  in  both,  and  their  pruning  will  probably  be  severe 
enough,  though  perhaps  not  so  well  judged  as  where  done  by  the 
grower.  By  offering  them  a mass  of  twigs,  the  damage  will  be  so 
distributed  that  the  plants  will  suffer  no  permanent  injury. 

Second.  Do  no  budding  or  grafting  either  this  fall  or  next  spring. 
The  chances  are  that  all  young  shoots  or  grafted  stock  will  be  severely 
injured  or  destroyed  by  the  insects.  Sometimes  vigorous  young  fruit 


6 


trees  overcome  the  effects  of  the  punctures  the  first  year,  but  usually 
lose  the  affected  branches  the  year  following,  destroying  the  shape  or 
making  it  necessary  to  cut  back  so  as  to  lose  a year  or  two  in  growth. 
By  adopting  the  above  simple  precautions  the  amount  of  injury  done 
can  be  lessened,  if  not  entirely  prevented. 

These  insects  have  many  natural  enemies,  and  chief  among  these  is 
the  English  sparrow.  It  is  seldom  that  one  can  justly  say  a good 
word  for  these  birds,  but  there  is  no  doubt  that  they  give  valuable  aid 
in  the  destruction  of  the  Cicadas.  Wherever  sparrows  are  numerous, 
the  chances  are  that  they  will  allow  few  of  the  insects  to  propagate 
their  kind. 

In  a general  way,  it  may  be  said  that  the  brood  occurs  all  over 
the  State.  We  have  definite  information  that  it  occurs  in  Union, 
Essex,  Morris,  Bergen,  Hudson,  Middlesex,  Monmouth,  Warren, 
Sussex  and  Camden  counties,  and  there  the  insects  will  probably  be 
most  numerous.  They  will  probably  be  less  troublesome  in  the  south- 
ern than  in  the  northern  and  eastern  counties,  but  it  will  be  well  to 
adopt  the  measures  above  suggested  in  all  parts  of  the  State. 

Brood  XXII.,  the  fourth  of  those  occurring  in  New  Jersey, 
appeared  last  in  1885,  and  will  appear  again  in  1902.  It  is  a well- 
recorded  brood,  and  the  specimens  were  numerous  and  somewhat 
injurious.  This  has  been  recorded  from  Camden,  Mercer,  Middlesex,. 
Monmouth,  Passaic,  Morris,  Somerset  and  Hunterdon  counties,  and 
it  will  be  noted  that  in  some  of  the  counties  the  insects  appear  in 
numbers  at  intervals  of  less  than  seventeen  years,  though  each  brood 
has  that  interval  of  time  between  the  appearance  of  the  individuals 
belonging  to  it. 


it; /r?d~; 


CORN  STALKS  AND  STRAW  AS  HAY  SUBSTITUTES. 
A BULLETIN  OF  INFORMATION. 


NEW  JERSEY 

AGRICULTURAL 


% 


96 


NEW  JERSEY 

Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 

BULLETIN  96. 

OCTOBER  14,  1893. 


Corn  Stalks  and  Straw  as  Hay  Substitutes. 
A Bulletin  of  Information. 


In  many  respects  the  past  season  has  been  an  unfavorable  one ; the 
results  are  felt  now  more  particularly  in  those  sections  where  hay  has 
formed  a chief  money  crop,  or  where  the  dairy  and  stock-feeding 
interests  are  prominent,  though  all  parts  of  the  State  are  affected 
directly  or  indirectly.  The  drought  of  the  early  summer  seriously 
reduced  the  hay  crop,  and  the  storms  of  wind  and  hail  in  August 
materially  injured  the  crops  of  corn  fodder  and  stalks.  The  condi- 
tions now  existing  give  rise  to  questions  something  like  these : 

1.  What  fodders  can  be  substituted  for  hay  in  order  that  the  maxi- 
mum amount  may  be  sold  ? 

2.  How  can  hay  be  utilized  in  order  that  minimum  quantities  need 
be  bought  ? 

3.  What  feeds  shall  be  bought  in  order  to  best  utilize  coarse  fodder 
so  as  to  retain  present  herds  without  loss  ? 

These  questions  are  virtually  one  and  the  same,  though  they  appear 
different  according  to  the  various  conditions  of  the  farmers,  and  may, 
perhaps,  be  stated  more  concisely  as  follows : How  shall  farmers  best 
dispose  of  their  produce  ? 

The  problems  relating  to  the  feeding  of  animals  are  of  great 
importance,  and  the  investigation  of  certain  of  them  has  formed  a 
considerable  part  of  the  work  of  this  Station,  the  results  of  which 


3 


have  been  published  from  time  to  time,  both  in  bulletin  form  and  in 
the  annual  reports.  The  object  of  this  bulletin  is,  therefore,  not  to 
report  the  work  of  recent  investigations,  but  to  restate  facts  and  prin- 
ciples already  well  established ; to  furnish  suggestions  in  reference  to 
the  proper  use  of  farm  produce,  the  buying  of  feeds  and  the  prepara- 
tion of  rations ; in  other  words,  to  present  a bulletin  of  information. 
It  is  believed  that  this  work  will  be  of  value,  since  farmers  are,  under 
the  circumstances,  as  stated,  brought  face  to  face  with  the  practical 
bearings  of  scientific  principles  in  the  matter  of  feeding. 

Object  of  Feeding. 

Feeds  may  accomplish  two  objects — 1.  Maintenance  of  life,  or 
*2.  Maintenance  of  life,  plus  an  increase  of  animal  product,  the  latter 
of  which,  according  to  the  kind  of  animal,  may  take  the  form  of  flesh, 
fat,  milk  or  work.  To  accomplish  either  of  these  objects  the  food 
must  possess  bulk,  palatability  and  digestible  nutritious  compounds. 

To  maintain  life,  no  special  attention  to  these  characteristics  is 
required  on  the  part  of  the  feeder ; to  secure  the  additional  animal 
product  attention  to  them  becomes  of  the  greatest  importance.  Infor- 
mation that  will  prove  of  the  most  immediate  usefulness  would  seem 
to  be  that  which  concerns — 1.  Hay  substitutes,  and  2.  The  use  of 
these  substitutes  with  feeds  in  the  preparation  of  rations. 


Hay  Substitutes. 

Hay  possesses  those  peculiarities  of  bulk  and  nutritious  compounds 
which  make  it  particularly  useful  in  accomplishing  the  first  object  of 
feeding,  viz.,  maintenance  of  life,  but  lacks  in  concentration  of  nutri- 
tive matter,  and  therefore  is  not  the  most  useful  in  accomplishing  the 
second  object — rapid  increase  in  animal  product.  This  useful  charac- 
teristic, bulk,  is  nothing  more  nor  less  than  indigestible  matter,  made 
up  largely  of  the  woody  part  of  the  hay.  The  digestible  compounds 
of  the  hay  are  identical  in  kind  with  those  contained  in  more  concen- 
trated products.  Hay  as  hay,  then,  is  not  so  important,  provided  we 
can  secure  the  desired  bulk  and  nutrition  from  other  sources.  The 
question  of  substitutes  for  hay,  therefore,  resolves  itself  into  a ques- 
tion of  equivalents;  not  in  the  sense  that  any  product  may  be  an 
exact  equivalent  in  all  respects  when  fed  in  the  same  way,  but  that 
other  products  may  be  used  in  such  a manner  as  to  secure  an  equiva- 
lent result. 


4 


M.  Viger,  the  French  Minister  of  Agriculture,  in  a circular 
recently  issued,  and  called  forth  by  the  failure  of  the  hay  crop,, 
says : “ Now  that  hay  has  risen  to  its  present  price,  this  com- 
modity can  only  be  obtained  by  those  who  keep  animals  for  pleasure. 
The  farmer  cannot  buy  forage  at  present  prices ; yet  it  is  an  error  to- 
suppose  that  animals  on  the  farm  are  condemned  to  suffer  or  perish 
if  the  hay  crop  fails,  for  there  are  countries  where  horses  and  cattle 
never  receive  any  hay,  and  these  countries  are  renowned  for  their 
cattle.”  He  also  gives  equivalents  of  nutritive  materials  of  various 
commodities  for  cattle,  compared  to  100  pounds  of  hay,  a number  of 
which  are  as  follows  : “ 100  pounds  of  hay,  of  good  average  quality, 
can  be  replaced  by  either  170  pounds  of  oat  straw,  237  pounds  of 
wheat  straw,  150  pounds  of  husks  of  oats,  193  pounds  of  wheat 
chaff,  150  pounds  of  fresh  leaves  (poplar,  ash,  acacia,  mulberry,  oak, 
lime  and  elm),  80  pounds  of  dried  leaves  of  the  same,  gathered  when 
green,  275  pounds  of  pine  leaves,  145  pounds  of  potatoes,  300  pounds 
of  forage  beet,  etc.”  And  in  the  matter  of  rations  for  maintenance, 
assuming  20  pounds  of  hay  per  day  as  providing  the  necessary  nour- 
ishment for  a horse  of  1,000  pounds  live  weight,  equivalent  rations 
are : “ a.  12  pounds  of  hay,  5 pounds  of  oats ; b.  6 pounds  of  wheat 
straw,  8 pounds  of  oats;  c.  16  pounds  of  green  leaves,  2 of  straw , 
3 of  oats  and  2 of  wheat;  d.  16  pounds  of  green  leaves,  2 of  straw, 
2 of  oats  and  2 of  barley.” 

These  statements  are  valuable,  not  only  in  giving  equivalents 
in  nutrition,  but  in  showing  the  wide  range  of  vegetable  products 
that  may  serve  as  substitutes  for  hay.  They  are  actual  substitutes 
mainly  in  furnishing  the  desired  bulk,  for  it  must  be  remembered 
that  while  these  products  in  the  amounts  given  may  furnish  the 
equivalent  of  nutrition,  it  does  not  follow  that  they  would  serve 
equally  well  in  maintaining  life  if  fed  alone ; that  is,  no  amount  of 
straw  is  an  exact  equivalent  of  a definite  amount  of  hay,  both  in 
the  kind  and  proportion  of  the  nutritive  compounds,  fat,  protein  and 
carbohydrates,  because  of  the  differences  in  chemical  composition. 

The  protein  of  a feed  corresponds  to  the  lean  meat  of  the  animal 
body,  and  to  the  casein  of  the  milk,  and  serves  as  a direct  source  of 
these  products  in  the  body ; the  fat  corresponds  to  the  fat  of  the  body, 
and  the  butter  fat  of  the  milk,  and  serves  as  a source  of  these  pro- 
ducts, as  well  as  aiding  in  the  maintenance  of  animal  heat  and 
energy ; the  carbohydrates  serve  chiefly  for  the  production  of  animal 


5 


iheat  and  energy,  though  under  certain  conditions  are  capable  of  con- 
version into  fat. 

The  protein  in  straw  and  other  coarse  products  after  digestion 
is,  pound  for  pound,  quite  as  valuable,  and  serves  its  purpose  quite 
as  well  as  that  contained  in  hay ; this  is  also  true  of  the  other 
compounds,  fat  and  carbohydrates,  but  in  the  straw  the  carbohy- 
drates exist  in  much  greater  proportion  to  the  others  than  in  the 
hay,  while  the  fat  and  protein  are  in  less  proportion,  and  all  are  com- 
bined with  a larger  amount  of  the  indigestible  woody  matter  in  the 
straw  than  in  the  hay,  thus  rendering  the  digestion  more  difficult. 

It  is  interesting,  however,  to  note  the  extent  to  which  this  matter  of 
the  utilization  of  what  may  be  regarded  as  the  least  valuable  parts  of 
our  farm  crops  or  other  vegetable  products,  as  substitutes  for  hay,  has 
been  studied,  and  the  value  that  is  now  attached  to  them  in  those 
countries  where  they  are  used,  and  profitably  converted  into  valuable 
animal  product.  How  much  more  important  must  be  the  proper  pres- 
ervation and  use  of  our  more  valuable  farm  products,  like  corn  stalks 
and  straw,  now  so  carelessly  handled  and  wastefully  used,  and  which 
experimental  tests  have  shown  to  contain  almost  as  much  nutriment, 
ton  for  ton,  as  meadow  hay.  In  our  own  State,  therefore,  there  seems 
to  be  no  special  necessity  of  giving  our  attention  to  the  less  valuable 
products  until  greater  care  is  exercised  in  the  use  of  corn  stalks  and 
straw.  These,  for  us,  are  the  chief  substitutes  for  hay.  In  the  case  of 
straw  many  farmers  insist  that  although  it  may  possess  feeding  value, 
it  is  more  useful  as  bedding  and  manure  than  as  feed.  Straw  has  a 
decided  value  for  these  purposes,  but  if  farmers  recognized  that  straw 
trodden  into  the  mire  of  an  open  yard  is  not  good  bedding,  and  that 
the  resultant  product  is  not  good  manure,  there  would,  in  the 
majority  of  instances,  be  a considerable  quantity  left  for  feed,  after 
the  legitimate  uses  of  bedding  were  served. 

Since  two  of  the  characteristics  of  a feed,  bulk  and  nutriment,  are 
contained  in  these  coarse  products,  and  they  are,  therefore,  hay  sub- 
stitutes, in  so  far  as  they  aid  in  accomplishing  the  first  object  of  feed- 
ing— maintenance  of  life — the  real  question  comes  on  how  to  use 
them  in  order  that  they  may  best  aid  in  the  second  object — increase 
in  animal  product. 

Feeds  to  be  Used  with  Hay  Substitutes. 

It  has  already  been  shown  that  a feed  is  a feed  because  it  contains 
'elements  or  compounds  corresponding  in  kind  to  those  contained  in 


6 


the  animal  body,  which  the  animal  organism  is  capable  of  converting 
into  materials  that  sustain  life,  and  thus  increase  their  product.  A 
feed  is  good  when  it  is  eatable,  and  when  it  contains  a high  content  of 
the  more  valuable  constituents,  though  a good  feed  is  not  equally 
good  for  all  purposes,  because  of  the  various  products  derived  from 
feeding,  and  because  even  animals  of  the  same  kind  differ  in  their 
capacities  for  using  feeds.  A best  feed  is  one  which  accomplishes 
most  economically  the  object  in  any  particular  case.  It  follows, 
therefore,  that  the  best  use  of  a feed  is  that  which  best  meets  the 
needs  of  the  animals  for  any  special  purpose. 

These  points  have  been  carefully  investigated  and  have  given 
rise  to  what  are  termed  feeding  standards,  or  proportions  of 
digestible  fat,  protein  and  carbohydrates  best  adapted  to  the 
various  purposes  of  feeding.  Feeding  standards  and  their  use- 
fulness as  guides  in  the  matter  of  feeding,  have  been  fully 
discussed  in  our  previous  reports,  now  in  the  hands  of  farmers, 
and  are  referred  to  here  mainly  to  indicate  the  principles  which 
underlie  the  combinations  of  fodders  and  feeds  in  the  rations 
that  may  be  suggested.  It  has  already  been  stated  that  hay,  stalks^ 
straw  and  other  coarse  fodders  consisted  largely  of  carbohydrates,  a 
class  of  nutrients  not  calculated  to  cause  a rapid  increase  in  flesh  or  a 
large  flow  of  milk.  To  insure  an  economical  production  of  these,, 
such  farm  products  must  be  combined  with  others,  rich  or  richer  in 
protein  and  fat,  thus  approaching  a proper  balancing  of  food  com- 
pounds for  specific  purposes. 

Feeds  rich  in  protein  and  fat,  and  thus  able  to  supply  the  deficiency 
in  this  important  respect,  are,  in  the  order  of  their  content  of  protein,, 
cotton-seed  meal,  linseed  meal,  gluten  feed,  malt  sprouts,  buckwheat 
middlings,  dried  brewers’  grains,  wheat  middlings  and  wheat  bran. 
Corn  meal  should  also  be  mentioned  here,  for  it  is  one  of  the  best  of 
feeds,  although  it  is  not  calculated  to  balance  the  coarser  products  of 
the  farm,  because  of  its  high  content  of  the  same  class  of  nutrients, 
carbohydrates.  The  same  is  also  true,  though  in  a less  degree,  of 
hominy  meal,  rice  bran,  and  cerealine  feed. 

Reliability  of  Commercial  Feeds. 

The  chemical  composition  of  these  feeds  may  be  found  in  Bulletin 
87,  which  was  distributed  to  the  farmers  of  the  State  in  April,  1892. 
The  samples  analyzed  and  reported  in  that  bulletin  were  secured 
from  ten  local  commercial  centers,  and  fully  represented  the  products- 


7 


for  sale  in  the  State;  the  results  showed  that  feeds  of  the  same 
kind,  with  one  exception,  were  uniform  in  character,  and  that  all 
were  free  from  foreign  impurities.  This  is  an  important  fact,  since 
many  farmers  fear  that  they  cannot  tell  what  they  are  buying,  and 
that  bran  and  middlings  particularly  often  contain  undue  proportions 
of  sweepings  and  dirt  from  the  mills,  and  hence  they  hesitate  to  buy 
that  which  may  prove  injurious  to  their  animals.  The  evidence 
gathered  by  the  work  of  the  Station  is,  that  farmers  may  place 
reliance  upon  the  uniformity  and  purity  of  these  products  in  the 
hands  of  reliable  dealers,  though  they  should  in  all  cases  demand  a 
statement  as  to  the  character  of  those  with  which  they  are  unfamiliar. 

Prices  of  Feeds. 

The  average  price  per  ton  for  the  six  months  preceding  January 
1st,  ] 893,  were : Cotton-seed  meal,  $28 ; linseed  meal,  $29 ; gluten 
feed,  $20;  dried  brewers’  grains,  $19;  malt  sprouts,  $18;  buck- 
wheat middlings,  $17.50;  wheat  middlings,  brown,  $18  75,  and 
wheat  bran,  $18.  These  prices,  of  course,  may  not  exactly  represent 
the  facts  this  year ; the  main  point,  however,  is  that  at  these  prices,  or 
slight  variations  from  them,  any  one  of  the  feeds  will  furnish  the 
important  constituents,  protein  and  fat,  at  a less  cost  per  pound  than 
grain  which  is  now  so  low.  Farmers  need  not  hesitate,  therefore,  to 
sell  their  wheat  and  oats  at  present  prices,  for  while  they  are  excellent 
feeds,  they  are,  for  the  purpose  of  utilizing  coarse  farm  produce,  less 
desirable  and  more  expensive  than  the  residues  resulting  from  various 
manufactures. 

These  concentrated  products  have  been  shown  to  possess  a 
high  rate  of  digestibility,  and  to  give  fairly  equivalent  results 
if  used  in  not  too  large  amounts  in  well-balanced  rations.  Which 
one  of  the  many  to  buy  is  then  not  so  important  a question  as 
that  of  a sufficiency  of  them,  when  economy  in  feeding  is  alone  con- 
sidered; one  feed  may  be  relatively  cheaper  than  another  for  a 
specific  purpose  or  in  particular  cases,  yet  for  general  purposes,  and 
in  order  that  animals  may  have  a variety,  it  is  good  economy  to  have 
a number  on  hand.  Among  dairymen  this  practice  is  followed,  but 
where  small  herds  are  kept,  it  is  not  so  general  as  it  should  be.  It  is 
claimed  that  small  lots  are  expensive,  and  local  dealers  do  not  have  a 
large  variety  in  stock.  This  claim  is  true,  yet  this  difficulty  may  be 
overcome  by  a number  of  farmers  combining  and  ordering  large  lots. 


8 


Car-load  lots  may  be  secured  through  their  dealers  at  much  cheaper 
rates  than  ton  lots,  and  a car  lot  could  be  easily  distributed  in  a 
neighborhood. 

Fertility  in  Feeds. 

The  buying  of  concentrated  feeds  should  also  be  studied  from  the 
standpoint  of  fertility.  The  farmer’s  capital  stock  is  fertility,  the 
main  elements  of  which  are  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid  and  potash ; 
these  through  the  agency  of  plants  are  converted  into  products  which 
have  a fertilizing  value,  regardless  of  market  price;  that  is,  if  corn, 
oats,  wheat,  or  hay  are  returned  to  the  land,  they  will  aid  in  the 
growth  of  other  plants  by  virtue  of  the  manorial  elements  contained 
in  them.  The  average  amounts  of  these  constituents  in  the  four 
principal  farm  crops  are  shown  in, 

TABLE  I. 

Pounds  per  ton  Pounds  per  ton  Pounds  per  ton 
of  of  of 


Nitrogen.  Phosphoric  Acid.  Potash. 

Wheat 38  20  11 

Oats 37  15  12 

Corn 33  12  7 

Timothy  hay 20  7 26 


These  amounts  per  ton  of  fertilizer  constituents  are  removed  from 
the  farm  when  the  grain  and  hay  are  sold.  When  feeds  are  bought 
it  is  important  to  know  whether  anything  is  gained  in  fertility  by 
the  exchange,  for  under  equivalent  conditions  of  feeding  the  same 
relative  amounts  of  fertilizer  constituents  are  retained  in  the  animal 
products.  Table  II.  shows  the  amounts  of  fertilizer  constituents 
contained  in  the  more  concentrated  feeds. 


TABLE  II. 


Pounds  per  ton 
of 

Pounds^per  ton 

Pounds  per  ton 
of 

Nitrogen. 

Phosphoric  Acid. 

Potash. 

Cotton-seed  meal 

139 

65 

38 

Linseed  meal 

109 

42 

29 

Gluten  feed 

76 

8 

1 

Malt  sprouts 

88 

33 

37 

Buckwheat  middlings.. 

80 

43 

23 

Dried  brewers’  grains.. 

77 

19 

2 

Wheat  middlings. 

56 

42 

21 

Wheat  bran 

50 

60 

31 

9 


It  is  observed  that  all  of  these  feeds  greatly  exceed  the  grain  and 
hay  in  nitrogen,  and  with  the  exception  of  gluten  feed  and  dried 
brewers’  grains,  the  mineral  constituents  are  also  in  considerable 
excess.  When  market  prices  are  such  as  to  make  the  exchange  of 
farm  produce  for  commercial  feeds  a judicious  proceeding  from  the 
feed  standpoint,  the  inevitable  result  will  be  a decided  gain  to  the 
farm  in  fertility.  Farmers  of  this  State  spend  $1,500,000  annually 
for  these  identical  constituents  of  fertility  in  the  shape  of  commer- 
cial fertilizers,  and  many  thousands  of  dollars  more  for  city  stable 
manure.  These  facts  furnish  sufficient  evidence  that  an  increased  fer- 
tility is  desired.  A closer  attention  to  this  matter  of  manurial  values 
in  feeds  would  either  materially  reduce  the  expense  now  incurred  in 
these  directions,  or  secure  a greater  increase  in  fertility  at  the  same 
expense,  for  market  prices  of  feeds  are  not  influenced  by  manurial 
values. 

This  matter  cannot  be  urged  too  strongly,  particularly  where  fer- 
tility must  be  imported  to  the  farms  in  order  that  maximum  crops 
may  be  secured.  In  our  exports  of  linseed  meal,  and  in  the  bran  and 
middlings  contained  in  the  whole  wheat  exported,  farmers  in  other 
countries  are  now  given  annually  an  amount  of  fertility  that  would 
cost  us,  if  bought  in  other  forms,  not  less  than  $16,000,000.  This 
amount  of  fertility,  gathered  largely  from  the  rich  stores  of  our 
Western  States,  should  be  retained  for  the  less  fertile  lands  of  the 
East.  It  will  be  retained  only  when  farmers  have  learned  to  apply 
more  fully  those  principles  which  govern  the  economical  use  of  fod- 
ders and  feeds,  the  results  of  which  are  a saving  of  food  and  of  fer- 
tility. Finished  farm  products  only  should  be  exported. 


Preparation  of  Rations. 

The  first  point  of  importance  in  the  preparation  of  a ration,  bulk 
and  essential  nutrients  being  present,  is  palatability.  The  food  must 
be  of  such  a character  as  to  induce  a maximum  consumption  of  actual 
nutrients,  because  profit  in  feeding  for  the  production  of  milk  flesh  or 
fat,  lies  in  the  excess  of  feed  consumed  over  that  necessary  to  main- 
tain life.  Corn  stalks  and  straw  in  their  original  state  are  not  readily 
and  completely  eaten  by  animals.  To  insure  the  minimum  waste 
they  must  be  cut,  and  the  coarser  and  finer  portions  imtimately 
mixed,  and  feeds  of  known  relish  added.  In  England,  where  great 


10 


progress  has  been  made  in  feeding  methods,  the  cut  hay,  straw  and 
other  coarse  products  are  mixed  with  sliced  roots,  the  feeds  added, 
the  whole  mass  thoroughly  mixed  and  allowed  to  remain  some  time 
before  feeding.  This  method  doubtless  adds  to  both  the  palatability 
and  digestibility  of  the  foods,  and  it  is  to  be  recommended  where  cir- 
cumstances permit.  This  matter  of  preparation,  however,  gives  rise 
to  the  question,  Will  it  pay  farmers  to  invest  in  machinery  for  this 
purpose?  For  dairy  farmers,  there  can  be  no  question  as  to  the 
advisability  of  such  a course,  since  in  feeding  corn  stalks,  whole,  in 
the  usual  manner,  from  one-third  to  one-half  of  the  food  contained  in 
them  is  wasted.  Where  few  animals  are  kept,  and  simple  main- 
tenance is  desired,  if  this  is  ever  desirable  except  in  the  case  of  work 
horses  in  winter,  it  becomes  a question  worthy  of  some  consideration, 
though  an  increase  of  feed  equivalent  to  two  or  three  tons  of  hay  at 
present  prices  would  pay  for  a good  fodder  cutter ; one  good  cutter 
might  serve,  too,  for  several  farmers  in  a neighborhood  until  the 
usefulness  of  the  cutter  was  thoroughly  tested. 

A few  rations  are  here  given  which  contain  the  fodders  and 
feeds  in  good  proportions,  and  which  permit  of  a wide  use  of 
corn  stalks  and  straw,  as  substitutes  for  timothy  hay.  These 
are  intended  in  all  cases  to  be  sufficient  for  a daily  feed  for 
one  thousand  pounds  live  weight  of  animal  under  average  con- 
ditions, and  may  serve  a useful  purpose  as  guides  in  the  matter 
of  amount  and  proportion  of  the  nutrients.  They  are  not  in- 
tended as  positive  rules;  animals  must  be  fed  as  individuals  with 
peculiarities  of  appetite,  digestion  and  assimilation,  not  as  fixed 
machines.  The  rations  given  have  in  all  cases,  too,  the  merit  of 
having  been  tried  with  entire  satisfaction,  a number  at  the  College 
Farm,  and  others  by  practical  dairymen  in  the  State.  Nos.  1 and  2 
for  horses  have  been  fed  in  an  experiment  on  horse-feeding  at  the 
College  Farm  since  June  1st,  and,  so  far,  are  giving  very  gratifying 
results.  A large  amount  of  hay  seems  unnecessary,  and  other  feeds 
may  substitute  oats. 

It  is  not  expected  that  these  suggestions  will  meet  all  cases,  and  if 
those  farmers  whose  conditions  are  different,  or  who  desire  to  use 
smaller  quantities,  particularly  of  the  concentrated  feeds,  than  is 
here  recommended,  will  address  the  Station,  giving  full  details  in 
reference  to  kind  of  animals,  feeds  and  fodders  obtainable,  and  object 
of  feeding,  their  inquiries  will  receive  careful  attention. 


11 


Rations  for  Dairy  Cows. 


No.  1. 

No.  2. 

No.  3. 

10  lbs.  corn  stalks. 

3 “ corn  meal. 

3 “ hominy  meal. 

6 “ wheat  bran. 

2 11  cotton-seed  meal. 
8 * roots. 

6 lbs.  clover  hay. 

8 “ oats  straw. 

4 n corn  meal. 

4 “ malt  sprouts. 
3 “ wheat  bran. 

3 “ linseed  meal. 

10  lbs.  corn  stalks. 

5 “ wheat  straw. 

4 “ dried  brewers’  grains. 
3 “ wheat  bran. 

2 “ corn  meal. 

2 u cotton-seed  meal. 

No.  4. 

No.  5. 

No.  6. 

40  lbs.  corn  ensilage. 

6 “ malt  sprouts. 

4 “ wheat  middlings. 
2 “ linseed  meal. 

6 lbs.  corn  s‘alks. 

6 “ clover  hay. 

6 “ corn  meal. 

7 “ dried  brewers’  grains, 

10>lbs.  corn  fodder. 

7 “ dried  brewers’  grains. 
5 “ corn  meal. 

. 1 11  cotton-seed  meal. 

No.  7. 

No.  8. 

No.  9. 

8 lbs.  corn  stalks.  6 lbs.  clover  hay 

8 “ oats  straw.  6 “ wheat  straw. 

3 “ gluten  feed.  5 “ corn  meal. 

3 “ dried  brewers’  grains.  3 “ malt  sprouts. 

•5  “ buckwheat  middlings.  3 “ gluten  feed. 

3 “ linseed  meal. 

12  lbs.  clover  hay. 
5 “ wheat  bran. 
5 “ ground  oats. 
5 “ corn  meal. 

Rations  for  Horses. 

No.  1. 

No.  2. 

No.  3. 

8 lbs.  timothy  hay. 

6 “ dried  brewery’  grains, 
6 “ corn. 

8 lbs.  timothy  hay. 
. 6 “ corn. 

5 “ wheat  bran. 

1J  “ linseed  meal. 

6 lbs.  clover  hay. 

4 “ corn  stalks. 

6 “ corn. 

4 “ wheat  bran. 

1 “ linseed  meal. 

No.  4. 

No.  5. 

No.  6. 

4 lbs.  clover  hay. 

8 “ wheat  straw. 

5 “ corn  meal. 

5 “ wheat  bran. 

2 “ linseed  meal. 

6 lbs.  timothy  hay. 
10  “ corn  stalks. 

2 u wheat  bran. 

2 “ corn  meal. 

6 lbs.  timothy  hay. 
8 “ oats  straw. 

3 “ wheat  bran. 

2 “ corn  meal. 

For  Fattening  Steers. 

No.  1. 

No.  2. 

No.  3. 

10  lbs.  corn  stalks. 

5 “ clover  hay. 

0 “ corn  meal. 

5 “ wheat  bran. 

3 “ cotton-seed  meal. 

5 lbs.  clover  hay. 
10  “ oats  straw. 

6 “ corn  meal. 

6 “ wheat  bran. 

3 “ linseed  meal. 

10  lbs.  corn  stalks. 

8 “ wheat  straw. 

6 11  gluten  feed. 

5 “ corn  meal. 

3 “ cotton-seed  meal. 

12 


In  these  rations  four  pounds  of  wet  brewers’  grains  may  be  sub- 
stituted for  one  of  dried  grains,  and  ground  corn  and  cob  meal  may 
substitute  corn  meal  pound  for  pound  without  materially  affecting 
the  rations;  buckwheat  bran  free  from  hulls  may  also  substitute 
buckwheat  middlings.  The  rations  for  dairy  cows  are  intended  for 
full  flow  of  milk ; for  cows  approaching  the  calving  period,  the  feeds 
should  be  reduced  and  coarse  fodders  increased.  Rations  1,  2,  3 and 
4 for  horses  are  intended  for  moderate  work,  the  others  for  simple 
maintenance,  and  perhaps  will  apply  equally  well  for  cattle;  both 
cattle  and  horses  will  gain  in  weight  on  liberal  rations  of  clover  hay. 
Where  stock  is  kept,  clover  hay  should  not  be  sold  from  the  farm. 
For  young  and  growing  stock,  as  calves  and  colts,  linseed  meal,  bran 
and  middlings  are  the  best  additions  to  the  rough  fodders,  stalks  and 
straw,  in  the  way  of  feeds,  as  they  are  rich  in  the  muscle  and  bone- 
forming constituents;  the  amounts  required  should  be  adjusted  by 
the  feeder  according  to  the  age  of  the  animals. 

Where  farmers  have  not  the  appliances  for  making  weights  at 
each  feed,  and  prefer  to  measure,  the  different  materials  should  be 
weighed  at  least  once,  and  the  relation  between  a certain  weight  and 
a certain  bulk  ascertained.  The  weights  of  feed  for  a day’s  ration 
for  a herd  may  be  mixed  together  in  the  proportions  given,  and  in 
feeding  they  should  be  distributed  in  such  a way  as  to  give  animals 
of  different  live  weights  and  capacities  for  using  food  that  amount 
best  adapted  for  them.  Where  there  are  a number  of  dry  cows  in 
the  dairy,  then  the  mixtures  for  each  lot  had  best  be  made  separately. 
For  horses  the  rations  for  work  and  maintenance  may  each  be  mixed 
in  considerable  quantities  and  placed  in  separate  bins. 

Inquiries  as  to  where  to  buy  feeds  are  frequently  received ; a list 
of  the  dealers  in  this  State,  from  whom  samples  were  received  in  1892, 
is  given  in  Bulletin  87,  to  which  readers  have  already  been  referred 
for  detailed  information  regarding  the  character  of  concentrated  feeds. 

EDWARD  B.  VOORHEES, 

Director . 

New  Brunswick,  N.  J.,  October  14th,  1893. 


ANALYSES  AND  VALUATIONS  OF 
COMPLETE  FERTILIZERS,  GROUND  BONE  AND 
MISCELLANEOUS  SAMPLES. 


NEW  JERSEY 


AGRICULTURAL 


97 


NEW  JERSEY 


Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 

BULLETIN  97. 

NOVEMBER  6,  1893. 


Analyses  and  Valuations  of  Complete  Fertilizers, 
Ground  Bone  and  Miscellaneous  Samples. 


BY  EDWARD  B.  VOORHEES, 
LOUIS  A.  VOORHEES, 
JOHN  P.  STREET. 


Bulletin  93,  issued  in  July,  contained  the  analyses  of  95  samples 
of  unmixed  fertilizing  materials,  and  10  of  home  mixtures.  This 
bulletin  contains  the  analyses  and  commercial  valuations  of  248 
samples  of  different  brands  of  manufactured  complete  fertilizers,  and 
51  of  incomplete  fertilizers,  which  include  ground  bone,  dissolved 
bone,  wood  ashes  and  miscellaneous  products. 

The  purpose  of  Bulletin  93  is  to  direct  attention  to  the  character 
and  composition  of  standard  fertilizer  supplies,  and  to  show  the  actual 
cost  per  pound  of  the  constituents  contained  in  them,  though  it  also 
suggests  economical  methods  of  buying  plant-food,  gives  useful 
formulas,  and  shows  that  farmers  can  make  mixtures  which,  in 
mechanical  condition,  concentration  and  quality,  are  equal  to  the  best 
manufactured  brands  upon  the  market.  It  shows  how  direct  savings 
may  be  made  in  the  purchase  and  use  of  fertilizing  materials. 

The  work  of  this  bulletin  has  reference  almost  entirely  to  products 
manufactured  from  the  supplies  indicated  in  No.  93.  The  actual 
and  guaranteed  composition  of  manufactured  brands  are  compared, 


3 


which  shows  whether  the  manufacturer  fulfills  his  claims,  and  how 
far  the  guarantee  given  is  a guide  as  to  the  actual  composition.  The 
application  of  the  schedule  of  values,  adopted  for  the  various  kinds 
and  forms  of  fertilizer  constituents,  also  shows  whether  the  guarantee 
of  a brand  warrants  the  selling  price  attached,  and  the  commercial 
value  of  the  different  brands  studied  in  connection  with  their  compo- 
sition, permits  of  a fair  comparison  of  the  charges  of  the  different 
manufacturers  for  mixing,  bagging  and  selling  their  goods. 

The  value  of  this  work  to  the  intelligent  consumer  is  direct,  in 
furnishing  definite  information  as  to  the  composition  and  value  of  the 
different  brands  forced  upon  his  attention,  and  of  indirect  value  to  all 
consumers  in  that  it  reduces  to  a minimum  the  amount  of  worthless 
products  offered  for  sale. 

Inspection  of  Fertilizers. 

It  is  the  aim  of  the  Station  to  secure  a sample  of  all  the  different 
brands  and  fertilizer  products  upon  the  market.  It  is  believed  that 
this  aim  has  been  practically  attained  this  year  ; the  number  of  brands 
of  complete  fertilizers  is  nearly  20  per  cent,  greater,  while  the  number 
of  those  of  a miscellaneous  character  is  quite  as  great  as  in  any  pre- 
vious year.  This  result  is  due  both  to  a closer  inspection  and  to  the 
fact  that  new  brands  are  constantly  introduced,  the  product  of  both 
old  and  new  firms.  For  instance,  it  is  shown  that  while  eleven  firms 
entirely  new  to  the  State  are  represented  by  one  or  more  brands,  one 
manufacturer  is  represented  by  14  brands,  another  by  13,  and  eight 
are  represented  by  8 or  more  brands. 

It  is  also  shown  by  the  results  of  analyses  that  in  many  cases  the 
main  difference  in  a brand  is  a difference  in  the  selling  price  attached, 
the  amount  and  proportion  of  plant-food  constituents  apparently 
being  a less  important  factor  to  the  manufacturer  than  selling  price. 

While  the  multiplication  of  brands  is  not  on  the  whole  to  be  com- 
mended, a point  worthy  of  consideration  is  shown,  viz.,  that  where 
dealers  have  brands  made  to  their  order  by  regular  manufacturers  the 
quality  is  always  good  and  the  commercial  value  is  much  nearer  the 
selling  price  than  those  sold  direct  by  the  manufacturer  himself. 


Commercial  Valuation. 

The  schedule  of  values  adopted  and  used  in  the  valuation  of  com- 
plete fertilizers  this  year  as  well  as  that  of  1892,  are  added. 


4 


1892.  1893. 

cts.  cts. 


Nitrogen  from  Nitrates 15  15J 

Nitrogen  from  Ammonia  Salts 17£  17 

“ “ Organic  Matter 16  17  J 

Phosphoric  Acid,  Soluble 7J  6J 

“ “ Reverted 7£  6J 

“ “ Insoluble 2 2 

Potash  as  Muriate 4J 

Potash  free  from  Muriates 5J  5J 


The  change  in  the  schedule  by  the  lowering  of  values  for  available 
phosphoric  acid,  and  nitrogen  as  ammonia,  and  increasing  those  of 
both  organic  and  nitrate  nitrogen,  makes  the  valuation  per  ton  on  the 
same  basis  of  analyses  slightly  lower  this  year  than  in  1892.  The 
work  contained  in  Bulletin  93,  however,  showed  that  the  schedule 
was  entirely  just  to  the  manufacturer. 


Composition  of  Fertilizers. 

The  brands  examined  this  year  in  most  cases  contain  an  equivalent 
of  plant- food  guaranteed,  though  many  brands  show  evidences  of 
imperfect  mixing  or  carelessness  in  fixing  the  guarantee.  A guar- 
antee means  nothing  to  the  farmer  from  the  standpoint  of  proportion 
and  amount  of  plant-food,  unless  the  analysis  corresponds  to  that 
guarantee. 

In  two  cases,  Nos.  5361  and  5623,  the  State  law,  which  requires 
that  a guaranteed  analysis  shall  accompany  each  package  of  fertilizer 
for  sale,  was  ignored.  Sample  No.  5361  is  a poudrette,  and  is  of  a 
low-grade  character.  No.  5623  is  of  still  lower  grade,  containing 
six-tenths  of  one  per  cent,  of  nitrogen,  about  one  per  cent,  of  available 
phosphoric  acid,  and  but  a trace  of  potash,  and  with  a commercial 
value  of  only  $3.92  per  ton,  though  the  selling  price  is  $15.  It 
may  not  have  been  the  intention  of  the  manufacturers  in  either  case 
to  defraud  consumers,  though  ignorance  of  the  law  or  of  the  constitu- 
ents that  constitute  value  in  fertilizers  is  no  valid  excuse  for  the  sale 
of  such  products  without  complying  with  the  law ; the  actual  result 
is,  particularly  in  case  of  No.  5623,  that  farmers  who  buy  the  product 
are  cheated.  Neither  is  it  any  excuse  that  farmers  cheat  themselves 
in  the  purchase  of  fertilizers,  by  a careless  comparison  or  no  com- 
parison of  guarantee  and  selling  price. 

A case  of  this  kind  may  be  illustrated  by  sample  No.  5577.  The 


5 


guarantee  calls  for,  even  at  the  best  interpretation,  but  $8.52  worth  of 
actual  plant-food,  while  the  selling  price  is  $30  per  ton.  The  law 
does  not  fix  the  selling  price,  and  purchasers  should  study  the  relation 
of  these  two  factors. 


Selling  Price. 

As  has  been  the  custom  in  the  past,  the  selling  price  of  the  different 
brands  entered  in  the  tables  is  the  price  at  which  they  are  sold  where 
sampled.  These  prices  do,  of  course,  vary  somewhat,  though  the 
variation  is  between  reasonably  narrow  limits.  The  average  price  is 
found  in  some  cases  to  be  lower,  and  in  others  to  be  higher  than  those 
given  in  the  table.  The  average  composition,  selling  price  and  com- 
mercial valuation  for  1892  and  1893  are  shown  in  the  following 
tabulation  : 

Total  Total  Available  Insoluble  Selling  Station 

Nitrogen.  Phos.Acid.  Phos.Acid.  Phos.  Acid.  Potash.  Price.  Valuation. 

1892  2.74  10.38  7.70  2.67  4.50  $34.19  $25.66 

1893  2.69  10.23  7.54  2.69  4.58  34.11  24.41 

The  average  composition  and  selling  price  per  ton  are  practically 
identical  with  those  of  last  year,  while  the  valuation  this  year  is  $1.25 
less  than  in  1892,  making  the  difference  between  valuation  and  sell- 
ing price  $9.70,  or  the  selling  price  40  per  cent,  greater  than  the 
valuation,  which  represents  the  average  charges  per  ton  for  mixing, 
bagging  and  selling.  It  is  evident  that  the  decrease  in  the  cost  of 
fertilizer  supplies  has  not  resulted  in  a lower  selling  price  per  ton  for 
the  mixtures  made  from  them  by  the  manufacturers.  It  is  shown, 
too,  from  a study  of  the  tables,  that  the  difference  between  valuation 
and  selling  price  in  nearly  half  of  the  brands  is  above  this  average, 
ranging  from  $10  to  $25  per  ton,  thus  giving  a wide  opportunity  for 
selection  on  the  part  of  the  purchaser. 


Ground  Bone. 

The  samples  of  ground  bone  examined  this  year  are,  on  the  whole, 
of  good  character.  A criticism  made  prominent  in  previous  discus- 
sions of  the  analyses  of  bone  products,  however,  still  holds  good, 
namely,  that  the  trade  terms,  bone  meal,  pure  bone,  steamed  bone  and 
raw  bone,  bear  no  exact  relation  to  the  kind  of  bone,  nor  do  they  in- 
dicate the  method  of  manufacture.  Sample  No.  5054  is  called  a 
steamed  bone.  It  contains  as  much  nitrogen  as  the  average  sample  of 


6 


ground  bone,  but  less  than  half  as  much  phosphoric  acid  as  is  con- 
tained in  a pure  bone.  The  simple  steaming  of  bone  would  not  have 
a tendency  to  decrease  the  amount  of  phosphoric  acid,  but  rather  to 
increase  it.  Samples  Nos.  5020  and  5071  are  also  good  examples  of 
products  that  contain  much  less  of  both  nitrogen  and  phosphoric  acid 
than  would  be  contained  in  pure  bone,  whatever  the  method  of  manu- 
facture. That  the  manufacturers  did  not  regard  the  samples  as 
pure  is  evident  from  the  guarantee  which  accompanied  the  brands. 
In  all  cases,  very  much  less,  particularly  of  the  phosphoric  acid,  was 
guaranteed  than  is  known  to  be  present  in  a pure  bone. 

A guarantee  of  less  than  4 per  cent,  of  ammonia  and  20  of  phos- 
phoric acid,  or  its  equivalent  in  bone  phosphate  of  lime,  may  well 
create  a suspicion  that  the  product  is  not  a pure  bone.  Samples  Nos. 
5556  and  5558  contain  potash.  While  a mixture  of  bone  and  potash 
may  be  a very  effective  and  profitable  manure  for  general  farming, 
the  results  of  the  analyses  of  these  samples  indicate  that  farmers 
would  do  better  to  purchase  the  bone  and  potash  separately  rather  than 
together,  as  in  these  brands. 


Valuations. 


The  schedule  of  prices  used  in  computing  values  in  1892  and  1893, 
as  well  as  the  average  per  cent,  of  fineness  of  the  bone,  are  added : 


Finer  than  in 

((  U 1 u 

ZS 

(C  U 1 u 

TZ 

Coarser  than  j2  “ 


Average  per  cent.  Nitrogen.  Phosphoric  Acid, 
of  Fineness.  Per  Pound.  Per  Pound. 


1892. 

1893. 

1892. 

1893. 

1892. 

1893. 

38 

43 

15c. 

15c. 

7c. 

6c. 

28 

27 

12c. 

12c. 

5£c. 

5c. 

24 

20 

9ic. 

9c. 

4£c. 

4c. 

10 

10 

7%c. 

7c. 

3c. 

3c. 

This  year  the  value  of  the  nitrogen  in  the  coarser  grades  is  re- 
duced one- half  cent  per  pound,  while  the  phosphoric  acid  is  reduced 
in  all  cases  except  the  coarser  grade.  The  average  per  cent,  of  fine- 
ness is  this  year  an  improvement  over  that  secured  in  1892.  The 
average  selling  price  per  ton,  excluding  those  samples  not  comparable, 
is  $32.50,  and  the  average  valuation  $31.23  per  ton. 


Miscellaneous  Fertilizing  Materials. 

The  analyses  of  samples  of  dissolved  bone  contained  in  the  table 
on  page  41  are  shown  to  be  of  good  quality.  The  commercial  valua- 


7 


tions  of  three  out  of  the  five  samples  bought  in  the  usual  manner,  by 
the  ton,  are  within  $3  of  their  selling  price.  Sample  No.  5621  was 
bought  on  the  basis  of  $2  per  unit  for  ammonia  and  $1  per  unit  for 
available  phosphoric  acid.  The  cost,  delivered  at  consumer’s  depot, 
including  bags,  freight,  etc.,  was  14.3  cents  for  nitrogen  and  5.3  cents 
for  phosphoric  acid.  These  figures  for  organic  nitrogen  and  available 
phosphoric  acid  are  18  per  cent,  less  than  the  Station’s  valuations. 
While  the  valuation  of  the  other  brands  is  relatively  high,  the  cost 
per  pound  of  the  nitrogen  and  the  phosphoric  acid  is  in  every  case 
greater  than  the  Station’s  valuations.  Dissolved  bone  is  an  excellent 
fertilizer  for  wheat,  and  at  the  present  low  price  of  this  cereal  it  is  of 
the  greatest  importance  that  farmers  should  take  advantage  of  such 
opportunities  as  are  afforded  by  these  products  to  reduce  the  cost  of 
the  crop.  Sample  No.  5598  is  evidently  a mixture  of  ground  bone 
and  dissolved  S.  C.  rock  superphosphate,  and  is  an  expensive  product 
at  the  selling  price  given.  In  sample  No.  5060  the  superphosphate 
has  been  improved  by  the  addition  of  sulphate  of  ammonia,  and 
doubtless  would  serve  a good  purpose  as  a wheat  fertilizer. 

The  samples  called  dissolved  bone  and  potash  do  not  contain  dis- 
solved bone,  but  dissolved  S.  C.  rock  to  which  potash  has  been  added. 
While  good,  they  are  not  cheap  sources  of  phosphoric  acid  and  potash. 
Sample  No.  5622  was  bought  on  the  unit  basis  and  in  car-load  lots. 
The  price  paid  was  85  cents  per  unit,  or  4£  cents  per  pound  for  avail- 
able phosphoric  acid.  This  is  but  another  illustration  of  the  advan- 
tages to  be  derived  from  buying  fertilizing  materials  on  the  unit  basis 
and  in  large  lots  for  cash. 

The  samples  of  wood  ashes  examined  this  year  were,  with  two  ex- 
ceptions, below  the  average  quality.  The  schedule  of  values  adopted 
for  ashes  is  5 cents  for  phosphoric  acid  and  5J  for  potash.  The 
average  cost  per  pound  for  potash  and  phosphoric  acid  contained  in 
these  samples,  not  including  5562,  is  9.7  and  10.7  cents,  respectively.. 
While  the  agricultural  value  of  wood  ashes  is  recognized,  it  is  a ques- 
tion whether  farmers  do  well  in  purchasing  phosphoric  acid  and  pot- 
ash in  this  form  at  the  prices  named. 


8 


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5522 
5432 
5521 
5287 
5129 
5229 
5127 

Complete  Fertilizers 

Furnishing  Nitrogen,  Phosphoric  Acid  and  Potash. 


34 


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Furnishing  Nitrogen,  Phosphoric  Acid  and  Potash, 


35 


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Complete  Fertilizers 

Furnishing  Nitrogen,  Phosphoric  Acid  and  Potash. 


37 


•jsqtnn^  uoiyeiS 

5316 

5073 

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5498 

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0.27 

5.20 

5.86 

2.45 

6.74 

5.06 

2.35 

3.39 

3.39 

2.76 

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•paa^uBJBtio 

1.00 

4.00 

3.00 

2.00 

5.00 

7.00 

2.00 
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4.32 
2.50 

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0.60 

4.26 

3.76 

1.87 

4.60 

7.53 

2.15 

1.98 

4.09 

2.84 

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Available. 

•paa^uBJBtio 

11.00 

8.00 

8.00 

9.00 

6.00 
7.00 
8.00 

7.00 

9.00 

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10.18 

6.30 

6.63 

8.74 

6.89 

7.66 

8.05 

7.29 

2.04 

8.05 

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12.00 

11.00 

11.00 

10.00 

7.00 

8.00 

9.00 

8.00 
12.00 
11.00 

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12.77 

10.31 

9.66 

11.16 

8.11 

9.46 

12.26 

9.87 

11.36 

11.65 

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2.59 
4.01 
3.03 
2.42 
1.22 
1.80 
4.21 
2.58 
9.32 

3.60 

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3.14 

2.22 

2.01 

3.32 

2.23 

3.04 

4.05 
3.59 
2.04 
1.11 

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7.04 

4.08 

4.62 

5.42 

4.66 

4.62 

4.00 

3.70 

6.94 

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1.64 

2.05 

1.64 

2.46 

2.46 

3.69 

1.64 

1.03 

1.23 

1.85 

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1.92 

2.63 

2.24 

2.65 

2.57 

3.48 

1.80 

1.31 

1.73 

1.97 

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1.54 

1.80 

1.52 
2.48 
2.42 
2.29 
1.63 
1.13 

1.53 
1.27 

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0.38 

0.17 

0.15 

1.19 

0.17 

0.18 

0.20 

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0.83 

0.72 

0.70 

Wenderoth’s  $25  Fertilizer 

Whann’s  Chester  Valley  Special  Potato.... 

“ “ “ Raw  Bone  Super 

Williams  & Clark’s  Amer.  A Bone  Super.. 

‘ ‘ Americus  Potato  Phos 

“ “ Am  H.G.Sp.forM.T. 

“ Ammon.  Diss.  Bones. 

“ “ Royal  Bone  Phos 

“ “ Peach  Tree  Fert 

Young’s  Champion 

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5316 

5073 

5072 

5585 

5498 

5070 

5339 

5230 

5341 

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38 


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000‘S  JO  o»H«I  Sainas 

$36.00 

28.00 

32.00 
27.50 

23.00 

38.00 

30.00 

35.00 

35.00 

34.00 

33.00 

29.00 

27.00 

35.00 

30.00 

35.00 

34.00 

34.00 

30.00 

32.00 

34.00 
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30.00 

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o^cocio6o>csi"^o6»-Hi/!>'Tj5o7r>»csicsi  10  cm  »— J ^ co  10 10 

r l<MH  CM  CM  CM  CM  CM  CM  CM  * -1 — C<l  CM  H CM  CM  CM  CM  CM  H CM 

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10  t>;  IO  ITD  05  O 00  Tp  O ^ H 10  ^ IO  H H lO  0 CO  ^ CD 

Tji  CO  CO  CO  rH  CO  Tji  iH  ^ CM  CM*  ^ CO  CM  r*  rji  CQ  ^ CO  c4  CO 

Mechanical  Analysis. 

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to  # 'H*  CM  1>  CM  ;Oi>Ot^  ; CO  ; CO  H O ; ; 1^  -rH  ; ; 

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* Contains  4.91  potash  and  0.81  chldrine.  f Contains  2.94  potash  and  1.30  chlorine. 


Miscellaneous  Fertilizing  Materials. 


40 


•j^quinK  noi^is 


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Miscellaneous  Fertilizing  Materials. 


41 


•joqumtf  uormiS 

5117 

5418 

5092 

5333 

5621 

5461 

5598 

5060 

5226 

5019 

5349 

5340 

5223 

5699 

1 

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qodeq 
<«j8umsuo3  *sqx 

000‘S  jo  oopij:  Sninas 

$35.00 

33.00 

33.00 

34.00 

33.00 

33.00 

35.00 

35.00 

30.00 

36.00 

34.00 

t 

t 

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Potash. 

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Phosphoric  Acid. 

Available. 

•paaXU«a«no 

7.00 
10.00 

5.00 

13.00 

10.00 
13.00 

8.00 
13.00 

13.00 

16.00 

•putlog 

8.30 
9.16 

13.61 

15.69 

9.84 

13.44 

9.30 
11.46 

9.08 

9.11 

4.68 

15.49 

’padjtraximo'  rej°X 

18.00 

15.00 

18.00 
14.00 

14.00 

10.00 

17.00l 

•putlog  x«J«x 

11.63 

13.66 

17.66 
30.38 
14.83 
30.35 

18.40 
13.06 

5.58 

4.90 

13.05 
13.43 

18.41 

17.06 

•oxqnxosuj 

3.32 

4.50 

5.05 

4.59 
4.98 
7.91 
9.10 

1.60 

3.97 

3.31 

13.73 

1.57 

•ap?Hio 

mmuonnnv  m oiqntog 

1.30 

3.56 

10.33 

15.21 

6.68 

6.36 

3.50 

0.80 

3.32 

7.03 

4.68 

2.15 

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7.00 

5.60 

2.28 

0.48 

3.16 

6.08 

5.80 

10.66 

5.76 

2.08 

13.34 

Nitrogen. 

•pae:pre.reno  I'ejox 

3.05 

1.64 

3.46 

3.05 

3.00 

3.05 

1.64 

0.41 

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2.63 

2.14 
3.66 

3.14 
1.92 
1.88 
1.10 
0.76 
2.40 
4.34 

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$2  per  unit  for  ammonia ; $1  per  unit  for  available  phosphoric  acid.  f$0.85  per  unit  for  available  phosphoric  acid,  f $15  per  ton,  in  car  lots,  f.  o.  b.  Pottstown. 


42 


Canada  Ashes. 


Station 

Number. 

MANUFACTURER. 

SENT  BY. 

5022 

C.  Stevens,  Napanee,  Ont.,  Canada. 

E.  Williams,  Montclair. 

5027 

Forest  City  Wood  Ash  Co.,  Boston,  Mass. 

W.  H.  Ellis,  Hammonton. 

5114 

F.  Lalor,  Danville,  Ont.,  Canada. 

D.  C.  Crane,  Westfield. 

5426 

Monroe,  De  Forest  & Co.,  Oswego,  N.  Y. 

J.  H.  Denise,  Freehold. 

*5562 

Winsor  Lime  Co.,  Hamburg,  N.  J. 

D.  N.  Warbasse,  Huntsburg. 

5620 

Allison,  Stroup  & Co.,  New  York  City. 

R.  Pond,  Vineland. 

5629 

,< 

J.  Fitzga,  Somerville. 

5630 

A.  A.  Clark,  Somerville. 

* Lime  kiln  ashes. 


5032  5037  5114  5426  5563  5620  5629  5630 


Phosphoric  Acid 1.61  1.22  1.57  1.48  1.13  0.95  1.06  1.21 

Potash 5.96  5.92  4.78  4.44  0.54  3.90  4.95  3.32 

Lime 34.02  31.53  36.00  26.16  37.08  45.76  35.68  34.74 

Valuation  Per  Ton $8.17  $7.73  $6.83  $6.36  $1.72  $5.24  $6.51  4.86 


Selling  Price  Per  Ton...  12.00  12.00  13.00  15.00  f 13.00  11.00  $11.00 


t Selling  price,  12%  cts.  per  bushel. 


Station  Number. 

From  A.  H.  Hawley, 
Vineland,  N.  J. 

j Moisture. 

j Organic  Matter. 

Ash. 

! 

Nitrogen. 

Phosphoric 

Acid. 

Potash. 

Lime. 

Valuation  per  ton. 

Total. 

Available. 

5024 

Belgian  Hare  Manure 

50.94 

44.35 

4.71 

1.10 

0.58 

0.50 

0.58 

1.01 

$5.12 

5025 

Pigeon  Manure 

72.66 

20.68 

6.66 

1.34 

0.82 

0.73 

0.43 

1.67 

6.13 

5026 

Hen  Manure 

73.58 

16.62 

9.80 

1.23 

1.12 

1.01 

0.44 

2.51 

6.11 

5021.  Wool  Waste.  J.  Story,  Philadelphia,  Pa.  Sent  by  A. 
McCullough,  Folsom.  It  contains  2.42  nitrogen,  0.50  total  phos- 
phoric acid,  and  2.10  per  cent,  potash.  Valuation,  $6.41;  selling 
price,  $7  per  ton. 

5125.  Cotton-Seed  Hulls.  Tennessee  Cotton  Oil  Co.,  Memphis, 
Tenn.  Sent  by  H.  I.  Budd,  Mount  Holly.  It  contains  0.69  nitro- 
gen, 0.56  total  phosphoric  acid,  and  1.08  per  cent,  potash.  Selling 
price,  $9  per  ton. 


43 


5210.  Marl.  Sent  by  C.  M.  Patterson,  Red  Bank,  N.  J.  It 
contains  0,87  total  phosphoric  acid,  0.11  potash  and  0.36  per  cent, 
lime.  Selling  price,  50  cents  per  ton. 

5629.  Dried  Swamp  Muck.  Sent  by  H.  H.  Riggs,  Hightstown, 
N.  J.  It  contains  1.24  nitrogen,  0.56  total  phosphoric  acid,  0.22 
potash  and  0.50  per  cent.  lime. 

EDWARD  B.  YOORHEES, 

Director . 

New  Brunswick,  N.  J.,  November  6th,  1893. 


CLUB-ROOT  OF  CABBAGE  AND  ITS  ALLIES. 


NEW  JERSEY 

Agricultural  College 


liiil 


ent 


98 


NEW  JERSEY  AGRICULTURAL  COLLEGE  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


BOARD  OF  CONTROL. 


The  Board  of  Trustees  of  Butgers  College  in  New  Jersey. 


EXECUTIVE  COMMITTEE  OF  THE  BOARD. 

AUSTIN  SCOTT,  Ph.D.,  LL.D.,  President  of  Butgers  College,  Chairman. 
Hon.  GEOBGE  C.  LUDLOW,  HENBY  B.  BALDWIN,  M.D.,  LL.D., 

Hon.  HENBY  W.  BOOKSTAVEB,  LL.D.,  JAMES  NEILSON,  Esq. 


STAFF  OF  THE  STATION. 


AUSTIN  SCOTT,  Ph.D.,  LL.D  , Director. 

Professor  JULIUS  NELSON,  Ph.D.,  Biologist. 

Professor  BYBON  D.  HALSTED,  Sc.D.,  Botanist  and  Horticulturist. 
Professor  JOHN  B.  SMITH,  Sc.D.,  Entomologist. 

ELISHA  A.  JONES,  B.S.,  Superintendent  of  College  Farm. 

IBVING  S.  UPSON,  A.M.,  Disbursing  Clerk  and  Librarian. 
CHABLES  A.  POULSON,  Mailing  Assistant. 

LEONOBA  E.  BUBWELL,  Clerk  to  the  Director. 

AUGUSTA  MESKE,  Stenographer  and  Typewriter. 


NEW  JERSEY 


Agricultural  College  Experiment  Station. 

BULLETIN  98. 

DECEMBER  9,  1893. 


Club-Root  of  Cabbage  and  its  Allies. 


BY  BYRON  D.  HALSTED,  BOTANIST  AND  HORTICULTURIST. 


The  Club-root  of  the  cabbage  and  turnip  is  an  old  enemy,  having 
been  known  in  Europe  for  more  than  a hundred  years,  and,  being  a 
fatal  malady,  with  peculiar  and  prominent  characteristics,  it  has 
received  one  or  more  names,  often  quite  descriptive,  in  several  of  our 
leading  modern  languages.  Thus,  in  Germany  it  is  called  “ Kohl- 
hernie;”  in  France,  “Maladie  digitoire;  ” in  Belgium,  “ Vingerziekt,” 
and  Russia,  “Kapoustnaja  kila;”  in  Great  Britain  it  bears  the  names 
of  “ anbury,”  “ hanbury,”  “ finger-and-toes  ” and  other  equally  ex- 
pressive terms,  while  with  us,  “ club- root,”  “ club-foot”  and  “ clump- 
foot”  are  the  leading  names  for  this  trouble,  the  process  being  spoken 
of  as  “ clubbing.” 

The  injury  to  the  crops  attacked  may  be  considerable,  sometimes 
incurring  almost  a total  loss,  and  in  the  aggregate  the  destruction  for 
the  whole  country  is  doubtless  represented  by  millions  of  dollars.  It 
is  particularly  severe  in  the  eastern  portion  of  the  United  States,  but 
is  not  unknown  in  the  West  and  South,  and  during  the  past  season 
(1893)  has  prevailed  extensively  in  the  truck  regions  around  the 
large  cities  of  New  York  and  Philadelphia.  New  Jersey  cabbage 
and  turnip  growers  have  suffered  so  heavily  of  late  years  as  to  sug- 


4 


gest  the  subject  as  suitable  for  special  consideration  by  the  Experi- 
ment Station.  Some  facts  with  a practical  bearing  upon  the  question 
of  how  the  club-root  lives  over  from  one  year  to  another,  have  been 


literally  unearthed,  which  alone  might  warrant  this  publication.  The 
weed  plants  that  harbor  this  enemy,  with  engravings  showing  the 
pest,  will  be  considered  in  their  proper  places  later  in  this  bulletin. 


The  Nature  of  Club-root. 

In  order  that  the  reader  may  derive  the  most  practical  good  from 
any  suggestions  as  to  use  of  preventives  and  other  treatment  of  the 
disease,  it  is  best  to  place  before  him  the  facts  thus  far  obtained  con- 


Fig.  1. 

Three  small  cabbage  plants  badly  “clubbed.” 


5 


cerning  club-root.  The  name  of  the  malady  is  quite  descriptive,  for 
it  is  an  affection  of  the  roots,  which  become  much  distorted.  The 
roots  may  begin  to  show  enlargements  while  they  are  quite  small  and 
before  the  plants  are  more  than  seedlings.  Thus,  cabbages  while 
growing  in  the  hot-bed  may  show  unmistakable  signs  of  “ clubbing/’ 
followed  by  a loss  of  vitality  throughout  the  whole  plant.  The 
affected  parts  soon  begin  to  decay,  becoming  very  offensive,  and,  from 
places  near  by,  other  roots  are  developed,  which,  in  turn,  become 
swollen  and  distorted  into  various  shapes. 

Figure  1 shows  three  young  cabbage  plants  taken  from  a field  that 
was  nearly  ruined  by  the  club-root.  Instead  of  the  numerous  long 
fibrous  roots,  by  means  of  which  the  plants  are  able  to  obtain  the 
required  nourishment  from  the  soil,  there  is  in  each  an  extravagant 
malformation  consisting  of  a much-knotted  and  enlarged  root-system. 
The  engraving  of  the  three  samples  is  from  a photograph,  and  shows 
the  general  appearance  so  well  that  further  description  is  unnecessary. 

That  which  is  of  the  most  interest  in  this  connection  is  the  cause  of 
the  peculiar  development  and  consequent  destruction  of  the  infested 
plants.  As  in  nearly  all  instances  of  similar  abnormal  structures, 
these  root-galls  were  long  ago  assigned  to  insects.  A careful  study  of 
their  development  failed,  however,  to  convict  any  species  or  group  of 
insects  of  these  depredations,  and  after  much  speculation,  and  no  end 
of  articles  in  the  agricultural  journals  and  elsewhere,  it  was  reserved 
for  M.  Woronin,  a European  botanist,  after  three  years  (1873-76)  of 
painstaking  and  exhaustive  study,  to  explain  the  nature  of  the  subject 
before  us.  From  his  published  results  * in  particular  and  a recent 
paper  f by  Mr.  A.  C.  Eycleshymer,  the  information  as  to  the  micro- 
scopic structure  is  largely  obtained. 

Instead  of  any  insects  being  the  cause,  although  such  decaying 
masses  usually  become  the  breeding-places  for  them,  Woronin  found 
that  a low  form  of  fungus  was  constantly  present  in  the  affected  parts. 
This  parasitic  organism  is  only  seen  with  the  higher  powers  of  the 
compound  microscope.  The  family  of  fungi  to  which  it  belongs, 
namely,  the  slime  moulds,  is  widely  distinct  from  the  mildews,  rusts 
and  smuts,  and  some  of  Woronin’s  and  Eycleshymer’s  illustrations,  as 
given  in  two  plates  which  accompanied  the  latter  author’s  paper  and 

* Plasmodiophora  Brassicse.  Urheber  der  Kohlphlanzen  Hernie.  Prmgs.  Jahr. 
F.  Wiss.  Bot.,  Bol.  XI.,  1878,  Plates  6. 

t Club-root  in  the  United  States;  Journal  of  Mycology,  Vol.  VII , p.  79,  Plates  2. 


Plate  I. 


Plate  II. 


8 


kindly  loaned  by  Professor  Galloway,  are  here  reproduced,  to  make 
the  nature  of  the  club-root  fungus  clear.  Ordinary  fungi,  like  the 
grape  mildew,  corn  smut,  wheat  rust  and  celery  leaf-spot,  have  long, 
slender  feeding  threads  which  work  their  way  through  the  tissues  of 
the  affected  plant.  There  are  no  such  threads  with  the  cabbage  slime 
fungus. 

In  Plate  I.,  the  first  figure  shows  a specimen  of  diseased  cabbage, 
natural  size,  and  Figure  2 a “ clubbed  ” turnip.  Figure  3 is  a por- 
tion of  a section  of  a turnip  root,  and  Figure  4 is  a rootlet  of  diseased 
cabbage,  seven  weeks  after  infection.  At  Figure  5 is  shown  a much*- 
magnified  view  of  a section  of  root  (Figure  4)  along  the  line  a,  b. 
A portion  of  a turnip  root,  seven  weeks  after  infection,  is  shown  at 
Figure  6,  natural  size,  and  at  6,  a,  are  shown  cells  from  the  section 
along  the  line  a,  6,  of  Figure  6,  and  two  hundred  times  magnified. 

In  Figure  5,  scattered  irregularly  midway  of  the  center  and  circum- 
ference, are  large  cells  filled  with  a slimy  substance  and  differing  from 
the  other  and  smaller  cells.  These  are  infested  with  the  slime  mould, 
and,  on  account  of  the  presence  of  this  parasite,  the  cells  undergo 
remarkable  enlargement,  and  an  influence  is  communicated  to  the 
outer  neighboring  cells  so  that  the  root  becomes  much  swollen  and 
even  distorted.  In  its  early  stages  of  development  the  fungus  is 
simply  a semi-liquid  substance  within  the  cells  of  the  root  tissue ; but 
as  it  reaches  maturity  the  contents  of  the  infested  cells  become  granu- 
lar and  finally  they  contain  a multitude  of  minute  spherical  bodies, 
which  are  the  spores  of  the  mould.  In  short,  this  fungus,  in  the  form 
of  a slime  or  plasma,  obtains  entrance  to  the  cells  of  the  growing  root 
and  there  robs  the  infested  tissue  of  its  vital  fluids,  and,  gathering 
new  forces  to  itself,  fills  the  cells  with  its  own  substance.  This  semi- 
fluid material  then  begins  the  process  of  spore  formation,  which  results 
in  the  production  of  millions  of  minute  bodies  each  of  which  is  capa- 
ble of  a new  growth  when  conditions  are  favorable. 

The  three  cells,  a , b and  c,  in  Figure  6,  a,  help  to  show  these 
peculiarities,  but  the  second  plate  is  devoted  in  particular  to  the  points 
of  development  of  the  fungus.  Thus,  Figure  9 is  a portion  of  a sec- 
tion of  Figure  10  at  the  line  a,  6,  and  magnified  six  hundred  times. 
The  two  cells  shown  shaded  were  completely  filled  with  the  plasma 
or  slime  of  the  mould.  The  spores  which  form  from  this  semi-fluid 
substance  are  spherical,  as  shown  at  Figure  12,  and  in  germination 
their  contents  come  out  as  seen  at  o,  becoming  naked  bodies  capable 


9 


of  movement  and  change  in  outline,  the  latter  fact  being  illustrated  at 
Figure  11.  These  motile  bodies  may  unite  with  their  fellows  and 
form  masses  of  semi-liquid  substance,  as  shown  in  different  forms  at 
Figure  13.  A single  cell  of  the  cabbage  root  is  shown  at  Figure  14, 

in  the  early  stage  of 
the  disease,  magnified 
six  hundred  times, 
while  at  Figure  15  are 
two  cells  later  in  the 
development  and 
showing  the  formation 
of  the  plasma  into 
spheres.  Figures  16 
shows  the  appearance 
of  the  fungus  two  hun- 
dred times  enlarged. 

We  have  traced 
above  the  life  of  the 
obscure  club-root  para- 
site, from  its  appear- 
ance in  the  root  as  a 
slime  in  certain  cells 
to  the  formation  of 
multitudes  of  spores 
in  these  same  cells. 
By  the  decay  of  the 
roots,  which  takes 
place  rapidly,  and  with 
much  offensive  odor, 
the  spores  are  set  free 
in  the  soil.  These 
ciub-root  in  roots  of  shepherd’s  purse.  spores  there  germinate 

by  producing  moving 

bodies  capable  of  penetrating  or  being  absorbed  by  the  thin  walls  of 
the  hairs  and  other  superficial  cells  of  the  roots.  The  soil  becomes 
diseased  in  the  sense  that  the  germs,  formed  in  the  swellings  and  other 
distortions  of  the  roots,  are  set  free  and  the  earth  holds  them  for  an 
indefinite  length  of  time. 


10 


The  Club-root  in  Weeds. 


It  is  generally  known  to  the  students  of  the  club-root  fungus  that 
it  is  not  confined  to  the  cabbage  and  turnip,  and  this  leads  to  the 
statement  of  the  botanical  name  of  the  parasite  we  have  been  con- 
sidering. Woronin  found 
it  so  different  from  all 
the  other  slime  moulds 
as  to  warrant  its  being 
put  in  a separate  genus, 
which  he  named  Plasmo - 
diophora  — that  is,  the 
plasma  or  “ slime  bearer 
and,  as  it  infested  the 
cabbage  and  turnip,  both 
members  of  the  genus 
Brassica,  he  made  the 
species  Plasmodiophora 
Brassicce , Wor.  Since 

then  two  other  species  of 
the  same  genus  have  been 
discovered,  namely,  Plas- 
modiophora Alniy  Wor., 
upon  alder-roots  and 
Plasmodiophora  Elceagni , 
Schroet.,  on  the  roots 
of  Elseagnus.  Various 
works  make  mention  of 
the  club-root  being  found 
upon  many  species  of  the 
mustard  family,  but  it  is 
unfortunate  that  the  par- 
ticular species  are  not 

Roots  of  hedge  mustard  with  club-root.  given.  Saccardo  * States 

that  it  is  found  in  several 
cruciferse  (Brassica,  rarely  Iberis  umbellata).  Dr.  Zopff  adds  to 
these,  “Levkoje” — that  is,  the  Stock  ( Mathiola  incana),  also  mentioned 


*Sylloge  Fungorum,  Yol.  VII.,  p.  464. 
f Die  Pilztliiere  oder  Schleimpilze,  p.  129. 


11 


by  Woronin.  Sorauer*  and  Frank  f simply  confirm  the  above  state- 
ments. Eycleshymer  J says : “ The  plants  affected  are  for  the  greater 
part  confined  to  the  genus  Brassica,  including  the  cabbage,  cauli- 
flower, turnip,  ruta-baga. 
Halsted  has  recently  de- 
scribed it  as  occurring  in 
the  radish.  In  Russia  it 
effects  the  genus  Mathiola 
and  Iberis.” 

So  far  as  the  actual 
species  of  the  host  of  the 
club-root  fungus  can  be 
determined  from  the 
books  at  the  writer’s  dis- 
posal, the  list  is  Brassica 
oleracea  (varieties),  B. 
rapa,  JRaphanus  sativusy 
Iberis  umbellata  and 
Mathiola  incana . This 
is  only  five  species,  the  last 
three  of  which  are  known 
to  be  but  rarely  affected. 

In  view  of  these  facts, 
it  is  interesting  to  add  to 
the  list  two  other  genera, 
each  with  a single  species, 
but  both  are  among  our 
most  common  weeds, 
namely,  the  shepherd’s 
purse  ( Bursa  pastoris , L.) 
cauliflower  with  ciub-root.  and  the  hedge  mustard 

(Sisymbrium  vulgare,  L.). 
Figure  4 shows  a group  of  the  infested  roots  of  the  shepherd’s 
purse.  It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  roots  of  this  prevalent 
weed  are  not  succulent  and  the  galls  are  correspondingly  small. 
However,  there  is  no  difficulty  in  distinguishing  a diseased  from  a 


*Pflanzen  Krankheiten,  Part  II.,  p.  69. 
f Die  Krankheiten  der  Pflanzen,  p.  238. 

X Club-root  in  the  United  States;  Journal  of  Mycology,  Vol.  YU.,  p.  49. 


12 


healthy  plant,  even  from  the  appearance  of  the  plant  above  ground 
when  thoroughly  infested,  it  having  a dwarfed  and  sickly-yellow 
appearance. 

In  Figure  5 is  seen  a similar  group  of  the  clubbed  roots  of  the 
hedge  mustard.  The  general  appearance  of  these  galls  is  quite  differ- 


Fig.  7. 

Turnips  with  club-root. 


ent  from  those  of  the  shepherd’s  purse,  being  more  regular  in  form, 
standing  out  like  dark  warts  from  the  otherwise  well-shaped  roots. 

In  this  connection,  to  add  to  the  information  concerning  the  club- 
root  upon  our  crop  plants,  an  engraving  each  of  the  cauliflower 


13 


(Fig.  6),  turnip  (Fig.  7),  Brussels  sprout  (Fig.  8)  and  kale  (Fig.  9) 
are  added.  They  were  all  made  from  photographs  by  Prof.  Smith, 
of  fresh  specimens  collected  by  Mr.  J.  A.  Kelsey.  The  cauliflower 
and  cabbage  resemble  each  other  in  the  general  form  of  the  “ club  ” 
that  is  produced,  and  in  like  manner  the  kale  and  turnip  galls  are 
somewhat  alike.  But  there  is  no  uniformity  in  the  matter,  and  the 
size  and  shape  of  the  malformations  are  largely  determined  by  cir- 
cumstances. 

Precautions  and  Treatment. 


From  a consideration  of  the  nature  of  the  club- root  fungus  and  a 
knowledge  of  the  different  kinds  of  plants  infested  by  it,  there  may 
be  some  suggestions 
gathered  as  to  pre- 
ventive  measures. 

When  it  is  under- 
stood that  the  club- 
root  and  all  the 
injury  to  the  crop 
accompanying  it  is 
due  to  an  internal 
subterranean  para- 
site, it  becomes  evi- 
dent that  no  treat- 
ment to  which  the 
infested  plant  may 
be  subjected  can 
give  promise  of  a 
cure.  Preventive 
measures  must  be 
relied  upon,  and,  in 
the  first  place,  all 
the  refuse  of  a cab- 
bage, turnip  or 
other  infested  crop 
should  be  removed 
from  the  soil  and 
burned.  To  leave 
cabbage  stumps  in 

the  field,  feed  them  g 

to  live  Stock  or  Brussels  sprout  with  club-root. 


\ 


14 


throw  them  in  the  compost  heaps,  are  three  of  the  best  methods  of 
propagating  and  spreading  the  malady  on  the  farm.  It  is  not  enough 
to  destroy  the  roots,  for  the  Plasmodiophora  is  found  also  in  the 
leaves,  as  Woronin  took  particular  pains  to  show  by  means  of  an 
engraving  in  his  paper. 


Seedlings  grown  in  the  hot-bed  should  be  examined  carefully,  and, 
if  they  show  signs  of  the  club-root,  consigned  to  the  fire.  If  only  a 
portion  of  the  plants  are  clubbed,  it  may  be  wise  to  discard  the  whole 
lot  rather  than  lose  the  crop  in  the  field.  Start  with  healthy  plants. 

In  view  of  the  fact  that  the  soil  may  become  more  or  less  impreg- 


Fig.  9. 

Kale  with  club-root. 


15 


nated  with  the  germs  during  the  growth  of  a crop  susceptible  to  the 
Plasmodiophora,  it  is  evident  that  a wise  precaution  consists  in  a judi- 
cious rotation  of  crops.  Just  what  that  rotation  should  be  is  a ques- 
tion for  each  grower  to  decide  for  himself ; but,  for  the  best  results, 
cabbages  or  any  allied  crop  should  not  be  upon  the  soil  oftener  than 
once  in  three  years.  Cabbage,  kale,  Brussels  sprouts,  kohlrabi, 
turnips  or  radishes  should  not  follow  each  other  if  club-root  is 
prevalent. 

It  is  possible  to  get  relief  by  the  use  of  some  of  the  commercial 
fertilizers;  but  this  needs  confirmation  through  trial.  It  is  a fact 
that  is  being  acted  upon  in  some  of  the  large  truck  regions  near  New 
York,  that  lime  is  an  effective  preventive  of  the  club-root,  and,  by  its 
constant  use,  at  the  rate  of  seventy-five  bushels  or  so  per  acre  each 
year,  cabbages  have  been  grown  at  frequent  intervals — almost  yearly, 
upon  the  same  soil.  It  is  likely  that  a soil  naturally  abounding  in 
lime  may  be  the  best  suited  for  cruciferous  crops,  so  far  as  club-root 
is  concerned. 

Lastly,  it  has  been  shown  that  common  weeds  harbor  the  fungous 
enemy,  and,  while  the  farmer  may  be  thankful  for  the  loss  of  his 
hedge  mustard  and  shepherd’s  purse,  through  “ clubbing,”  this  is  a 
case  where  weeds  can  be  more  cheaply  destroyed  in  some  other  way. 


Conclusions. 

Club-root,  an  old  enemy  to  cabbage  and  turnip  in  Europe,  has 
been  quite  destructive  to  these  crops  in  New  Jersey  during  the  past 
few  years. 

The  malady  is  due  to  a microscopic  parasite  which  infests  the  cells 
of  the  roots,  causing  them  to  become  swollen  and  distorted. 

The  spores  of  the  fungus,  upon  the  decay  of  the  part  affected, 
become  scattered  through  the  soil,  and  from  thence  the  enemy  enters 
the  host  plant. 

Plasmodiophora  Brassicce,  Wor.,  infests  several  plants  of  the 
cabbage  family,  including  turnip,  kale,  radish,  stock  and  candytuft. 

Two  common  weeds,  namely,  shepherd’s  purse  and  hedge  mustard, 
are  now  to  be  added  to  the  list  of  plants  infested  with  club-root. 

Preventive  measures  must  be  relied  upon,  for  the  affected  parts  of 
a plant  are  below  ground  and  not  readily  reached  by  any  fungicide. 


16 


If  the  crop  is  diseased,  all  refuse  at  harvest- time  of  roots,  stems 
and  leaves  should  be  burned. 

All  seedlings  from  hot- beds  with  signs  of  club-root  should  be 
destroyed,  and,  if  possible,  use  only  plants  from  beds  in  which  there 
is  no  disease. 

Cabbage,  kale,  Brussels  sprouts,  kohlrabi,  turnip  or  radishes  should 
not  follow  each  other  on  the  same  land  if  club-root  is  prevalent. 

Lime  added  to  the  land,  seventy- five  bushels  per  acre,  has  proved 
effective.  It  is  possible  that  some  commercial  fertilizers  may  be 
found  to  check  the  trouble. 

Keep  the  land  free  from  shepherd’s  purse  and  hedge  mustard,  and 
other  weeds  of  the  same  family,  as  their  roots  become  u clubbed,”  and 
thereby  propagate  the  enemy. 


THE  PEAR  MIDGE. 

(Diplosis  pyrivora,  Eiley.) 


NEW  JERSEY 

Agricultural  College 


mm  t 


tation 


99 


NEW  JERSEY  AGRICULTURAL  COLLEGE  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


BOARD  OF  CONTROL 


The  Board  of  Trustees  of  Butgers  College  in  New  Jersey. 


EXECUTIVE  COMMITTEE  OF  THE  BOARD. 

AUSTIN  SCOTT,  Ph.D.,  LL.D.,  President  of  Rutgers  College,  Chairman. 
Hon.  GEORGE  C.  LUDLOW,  HENRY  R.  BALDWIN,  M.D., LL.D. 

Hon.  HENRY  W.  BOOKSTAYER,  LL.D.,  JAMES  NEILSON,  Esq. 


STAFF  OF  THE  STATION. 

AUSTIN  SCOTT,  Ph.D  , LL.D.,  Director. 

Professor  JULIUS  NELSON,  Ph.D.,  Biologist. 

Professor  BYRON  D.  HALSTED,  Sc.D.,  Botanist  and  Horticulturist. 
Professor  JOHN  B.  SMITH,  Sc.D.,  Entomologist. 

ELISHA  A.  JONES,  B.S.,  Superintendent  of  College  Farm. 

IRVING  S.  UPSON,  A.M.,  Disbursing  Clerk  and  Librarian. 

CHARLES  A.  POULSON,  Mailing  Assistant. 

LEONORA  E.  BURWELL,  Clerk  to  the  Director. 

AUGUSTA  E.  MESKE,  Stenographer  and  Typewriter. 


NEW  JERSEY 


Agricultural  College  Experiment  Station. 

BULLETIN  99. 

APRIL  4,  1894. 


Th.©  Pear  Midge. 

(Diplosis  pyrivora,  Riley.) 


BY  JOHN  B.  SMITH,  ENTOMOLOGIST. 


The  “ Pear  Midge  ” is  one  of  the  insects  which  has  been  introduced 
into  the  United  States  within  recent  years,  and  has,  in  its  spread,  de- 
veloped into  the  most  injurious  pest  with  which  the  pear-grower  has 
to  deal.  Its  spread  has  not  been  extraordinarily  rapid,  but  it  has  been 
none  the  less  continuous,  and  it  is  annually  enlarging  the  area  occupied 
by  it. 

The  first  complaint  made  came  from  Connecticut,  in  1884,  while  I 
was  employed  by  the  United  States  Entomologist,  and  under  the  direc- 
tion of  Dr.  C.  Y.  Riley  I visited  the  fruit  farm  of  Coe  Bros.,  at  Meri- 
den, to  investigate.  I found  that  the  species  had  probably  been  intro- 
duced from  France  in  pear  stocks  imported  in  1877,  some  seven  years 
previously.  Two  years  thereafter,  in  1879,  the  insect  was  first  noticed 
in  the  orchard,  favoring  Lawrence  pears,  and  it  increased  annually 
thereafter  until  in  1883  it  took  almost  the  entire  crop.  No  variety 
was  quite  exempt,  though  the  Lawrence  remained  the  favorites.  Bart- 
letts  came  next  and  all  other  varieties  seemed  affected  in  the  order  of 


4 


the  lateness  of  blossoming ; 1884  was  an  “ off  year  ” for  pears,  and 
the  Messrs.  Coe  had  resorted  to  the  heroic  remedy  of  picking  all  the 
fruit  from  the  trees  and  destroying  it.  Unfortunately  the  work  was 
not  completely  done  before  the  larvae  matured,  and  still  worse,  it  had 
already  spread  to  neighboring  orchards,  where  matters  were  left  to 
take  their  course.  Yet  the  insect  appeared  to  be  confined  to  a limited 
area,  so  far  as  observation  went,  and  it  could  then  have  been  extermi- 
nated by  concerted  action.  Such  action  was  recommended  in  my  report 
on  the  matter  and  was  strongly  urged  by  Dr.  Riley  in  1885 — without 
practical  result,  of  course. 

Since  that  time  it  has  continued  to  spread,  as  was  predicted  by  Dr. 
Riley  and  myself,  and  in  1891  was  reported  in  destructive  numbers 
from  New  York  and  New  Jersey.  In  New  York  it  had  extended  up 
the  Hudson  river  valley  in  force  as  far  as  Catskill,  and  in  isolated 
specimens  to  Albany ; while  in  New  Jersey  it  was  abundant,  locally, 
in  Union  and  Essex  counties.  It  is  more  than  probable  that  in  our 
own  State  the  insect  had  been  present  for  at  least  two  years,  if  not  even 
longer,  before  it  was  noticed.  I could  not  learn  that  there  had  been 
any  direct  importation  with  plants  from  Connecticut,  and  a normal 
spread  is  therefore  indicated. 

My  report  for  1891  contains  an  account  of  the  insect,  and  the 
report  of  Dr.  J.  A.  Lintner,  the  State  Entomologist  of  New  York,  for 
the  same  year,  contains  a full  history  of  the  species.  In  1892  the 
insect  was  present  in  destructive  numbers  at  New  Brunswick,  N.  J.r 
and  active  experiments  were  made  looking  to  its  control.  In  1893  it 
had  continued  its  spread  in  Middlesex  county  and  had  extended  into 
Monmouth  county.  Experiments  and  observations  made  in  1892 
were  continued  in  1893,  and  a practical  method  of  controlling  the 
insect  has  been  worked  out. 

It  need  not  be  said  that  the  pear- growing  industry  is  an  extremely 
important  one  in  this  State,  and  that  all  horticulturists  are  directly 
affected  by  this  destructive  pest.  That  it  will  continue  to  spread  is 
reasonably  certain,  and  its  appearance  may  be  expected  in  1894  in 
many  new  localities.  This  bulletin  is  intended  to  inform  growers  of 
what  the  insect  is  like,  what  injury  is  done,  and  what  measures  for  its 
destruction  should  be  adopted. 


5 


Appearance  of  the  Fly. 

The  adult  insect  or  fly  much  resembles  a diminutive  mosquito,  the 
expanded  wings  measuring  less  than  one-fifth  of  an  inch.  It  is  of  a 
pale  grayish  color  with  a slender  body  and  very  long  legs,  allied  to 
such  pests  as  the  “ Hessian  fly,”  “ clover-seed  midge,”  i:  cranberry  tip- 


Fig.  1. 

DIPLOSIS  PYRIVORA. 

The  Pear  Midge : a,  the  mature  fly,  female ; b,  tip  of  abdomen  of  male  ; c,  the  pupa ; d,  the 
male,  and  e,  the  female  antenna.  (After  Riley.) 

worm,”  &c.  It  makes  is  appearance  very  early  in  the  season,  before 
the  buds  of  the  pear  blossoms  open,  and  remains  on  the  wing  for  a 
week  or  at  most  ten  days  thereafter.  Its  appearance  is  shown  in 
Figure  1,  illustrating  the  female  fly  from  the  side. 


Egg-Laying  Habits. 

The  insect  has  been  studied  in  Europe,  and  its  method  of  egg-lay- 
ing has  been  noted  by  Schmidberger  as  far  back  as  1840.  As  I have 
not  had  the  opportunity  of  observing  this  process  myself  I reproduce 
that  already  published. 


6 


Schmidberger’s  account  is  as  follows  : 

When  the  blossom-buds  of  the  pear  tree  were  so  far  developed  that 
in  the  single  blossoms  a petal  showed  itself  between  the  segments  of 
the  calyx,  I found  the  first  gall-midge  in  the  act  of  laying  it  eggs  in 
the  blossom;  this  was  on  the  12th  of  April.  It  had  fixed  itself 
almost  perpendicularly  in  the  middle  of  a single  blossom,  and  having 
pierced  the  petal  through  with  its  long  ovipositor,  it  laid  its  eggs  on 
the  anthers  of  the  still  closed  blossom.  The  female  was  about  seven 
and  a half  minutes  in  laying  her  eggs.  When  she  had  flown  away,  I 
cut  the  pierced  bud  in  two,  and  found  the  eggs  lying  in  a heap  one 
upon  another  on  the  anthers.  They  were  white,  longish,  on  one  side 
pointed  and  transparent,  and  ten  to  twelve  in  number.  I afterwards 
found  several  midges  engaged  in  laying  their  eggs  as  late  as  the 
18th  of  April,  from  which  day  they  ceased  to  appear  in  the  garden. 
I also  saw  a gall- midge  on  the  side  of  a blossom  with  its  ovipositor 
inserted  in  it,  so  that  they  do  not  merely  pierce  the  petals  but  the 
calyx  also.  I even  saw  one,  which  having  been  somewhat  long  in 
laying  its  eggs,  could  not  draw  out  the  ovipositor  from  the  blossom  ^ 
the  cause  of  which  I conceived  to  be  that  the  wound  had  begun  to 
close  during  the  operation  and  the  ovipositor  was  thereby  held. 

Schmidberger  further  states  that  the  eggs  are  quickly  hatched  in 
warm  weather,  for  on  the  fourth  day  after  the  deposit  he  had  found 
the  small  larvae  on  the  embryo  fruit.  They  bore  into  it  near  the 
calyx,  and  before  the  blossom  is  expanded  they  descend  to  the  core,  so 
as  not  to  be  exposed  to  the  rays  of  the  sun.  They  separate  at  the 
core  and  begin  to  devour  on  all  sides. 

In  its  earliest  stages  the  entrance  to  the  ovary  or  core  of  the 
embryo  pear  is  wide  open,  and  hence  no  eating  or  piercing  is  required 
of  the  minute  midge  larvae.  As  the  pear  sets,  the  young  larvae 
develop  rapidly,  being  first  white  in  color  and  changing  to  yellow  or 
orange  as  they  become  mature. 


Appearance  of  Larva. 

The  larva  when  full  grown  is  of  the  form  shown  in  Figure  2r 
a and  b,  about  one-sixth  of  an  inch  in  length,  pointed  toward  each 
extremity,  yellow  in  color,  with  a brown,  horny  “ breast  bone  ” on 
the  under  side  just  behind  the  head.  The  segments  of  the  body 
are  well  marked,  and  when  removed  from  the  infested  fruit  they" 


7 


move  about  quite  rapidly,  bending  themselves  quite  double  by  draw- 
ing the  tail  forward  until  it  touches  the  head,  and  then  jerking 
or  springing  upward  and  outward 
several  inches  at  a time. 

When  they  are  full  grown  they 
remain  in  the  fruit  until  there  comes  a 
rain,  which  causes  a rapid  decay  and  a 
cracking  open  of  the  infested  fruit. 

Through  the  openings  so  made  they 
emerge  and  drop  to  the  ground.  In 
the  Lawrence  the  opening  to  the  core 
remains  quite  large  for  some  time  after 
the  pear  is  formed,  and  many  larvae  are 
able  to  make  their  way  out  at  this 
point;  for  I have  seen  a number  of 
pears  perfectly  sound  of  surface  and  yet 
abandoned  by  the  larva.  The  opening 

through  the  blossom  end  in  such  cases  was  so  prominent  that  it  seems 
to  me  certain  that  they  made  their  way  out  there. 


Fig.  2. 

Pear-midge  larva  : a,  from  above  ; 
b,  from  side ; c,  head  ; d,  anal  end  of 
lafva;  e,  the  breast  bone.  (After 
Riley.) 


Pupation. 

As  soon  as  the  larvae  leave  the  infested  pears,  which  is  usually 
early  in  June,  they  drop  to  the  ground  and  at  once  make  their  way 
beneath  the  surface,  varying  somewhat  with  the  condition  of  the  soil, 
from  one-half  to  two  inches,  and  there  they  lie  for  some  time  un- 
changed. About  midsummer  the  larvae  make  oval  cocoons  of  silk 
covered  with  grains  of  sand,  and  in  these  they  lie  unchanged  until  early 
spring.  It  is  probable  that  there  is  some  difference  in  the  date  of 
forming  cocoons  and  in  pupation,  for  Dr.  Lintner  records  his  speci- 
mens as  forming  cocoons  as  early  as  June  15th,  while  of  the  large 
number  confined  by  me  none  had  formed  such  on  August  3d,  and 
some  were  still  naked  early  in  October.  It  is  worthy  of  notice,  too, 
that  different  seasons  may  make  quite  a difference  in  the  date  at  which 
the  flies  appear  or  the  larvae  mature.  According  to  Dr.  Lintner’s 
report,  larvae  emerged  from  the  pears  before  the  end  of  May  in  New 
York  State,  and  on  June  10th  most  of  the  infested  pears  had  fallen 
from  the  trees.  On  June  10th,  1892,  larvae  in  Middlesex  county, 
N.  J.,  were  not  yet  mature  and  none  had  left  the  pears.  None  of  my 


8 


specimens  had  changed  to  pupse  in  October,  when  my  experiments 
were  concluded ; but  some  time  during  the  winter  the  flies  matured 
and  escaped.  It  is  probable  that  in  nature  the  pupa  is  not  formed 
until  early  spring,  and  that  the  flies  emerge  soon  afterward,  depending 
upon  the  character  of  the  season.  The  pupa  is  shown  at  Figure  1,  c. 


The  Injury  Done. 

The  character  of  the  injury  done  has  been  already  indicated.  The 
midge  larvae,  numbering  from  ten  to  thirty  or  even  more,  live  on  the 
substance  of  the  pear  tissue  around  the  core,  destroying  the  seed  and 
checking  the  growth  of  the  fruit,  which  in  all  cases  decays  and  drops 
in  early  summer. 


Fig.  3. 

Young  pears  deformed  by  the  pear-midge  larvse — natural  size.  (After  Lintner.) 


Infested  pears  can  be  readily  recognized  by  a peculiar,  irregular  or 
knobby  appearance,  well  shown  in  the  series  of  outlines  under  Figures 
3 and  4,  and  this  irregularity  appears  in  the  fruit  almost  as  soon  as  it 
has  set. 

On  cutting  open  an  infested  pear,  a large  central  cavity  is  seen 
within  it,  occupying  most  of  its  interior,  quite  irregular  in  form  and 
often  made  up  of  smaller  cavities  separated  by  thin  walls  or  by  the 
remains  of  the  core.  Among  these  the  larvse  are  distributed.  No 
fruit  once  infested  can  be  saved. 


9 


Experiment  Record. 


It  will  be  at  once  noted  from  the  above  life  history  that  there  is  no 
period  at  which  this  insect  is  within  reach  of  ordinary  insecticide  ap- 
plications. The  eggs  are  laid  in  the  bud  before  it  opens  and  the  young 
larvae  get  into  the  heart  of  the  fruit  before  it 
is  fully  formed.  The  adult  fly  does  not  feed 
and  is  hence  beyond  our  reach.  It  is  only  after 
the  injury  is  done  that  the  insect  goes  under- 
ground and  within  reach  of  destructive  agen- 
cies. Such  destructive  agencies  may  be  either 
mechanical  as  by  cultivation,  or  chemical,  using 
a substance  killing  by  contact. 

I had  seen  reason  during  past  seasons  to  be- 
lieve that  certain  commercial  fertilizers  were 
effective  in  keeping  down  various  underground 
species,  and  determined  to  test  these  by  both 
field  and  laboratory  tests. 

In  1892  the  midges  appeared  in  some  num- 
bers in  the  orchard  of  Mr.  J.  M.  White,  near 
New  Brunswick,  and  in  one  close  adjoining  a 
considerable  proportion  of  the  fruit  was  in- 
fested. On  Mr.  White’s  land  the  Lawrence 
was  the  main  sufferer,  a very  small  proportion 
•of  Bartletts  only  being  infested  ; while  in  the 
neglected  land  a large  percentage  of  Bartletts 

was  also  destroyed.  At  my  request  Mr.  White  applied  a very  heavy 
top-dressing  of  kainit  to  his  entire  pear  orchard  in  late  summer,  and 
under  the  infested  trees  it  was  applied  at  the  rate  of  over  half  a ton  to 
the  acre.  In  all  other  respects  the  orchard  was  treated  as  in  previous 
years. 

The  result  in  1893  was  remarkable.  Late  in  May  I carefully  ex- 
amined the  entire  orchard — finding  just  one  pear  that  was  infested, 
though  a few  others  were  later  found  at  the  edges.  The  contrast  on 
the  other  side  of  the  line  was  striking.  I failed  to  find  even  one 
Lawrence  pear  that  was  not  midged,  and  of  the  Bartletts  more  than 
50  per  cent,  were  destroyed.  I attributed  the  exemption  enjoyed  by 
Mr.  White  entirely  to  the  use  of  the  kainit,  which  killed  the  larvse 


Fig.  4. 

Section  of  a pear  containing 
the  larvae,  and  a sound  one  for 
comparison  of  form.  (After 
Lintner.) 


10 


under  the  soil ; but  in  order  to  verify  my  belief  the  following  labor- 
atory experiments  were  made  : 

On  June  10th,  the  larvae  being  then  nearly  mature,  I gathered 
between  200  and  300  specimens  of  infested  pears.  A portion  of  them 
were  placed  in  a breeding-jar  for  future  use  and  for  such  experiments 
as  might  be  required,  while  the  balance  was  divided  among  eight 
one-quart  jars,  half  filled  with  sand.  The  pears  were  distributed 
among  these  jars  with  the  idea  of  getting  a nearly  equal  number  of 
larvae  into  each,  and  a rather  careful  selection  was  made  of  the  speci- 
mens to  that  end.  These  jars  were  left  undisturbed,  except  that  the 
sand  was  occasionally  moistened  with  water  and  the  abandoned  pears 
were  picked  out,  until  August  3d.  At  this  time  the  jars  were  all 
carefully  examined,  and  it  was  found  that  from  almost  all  of  the  pears 
the  larvse  had  made  their  way,  and  had  burrowed  underground  a 
short  distance,  although  none  had,  at  that  time,  formed  cocoons.  A 
small  number  of  the  pears,  however,  had  not  yet  either  decayed  nor 
cracked  open,  and  on  cutting  into  these  the  larvse  were  found  inside, 
apparently  in  good  condition.  All  such  pears  were  cut  open  and 
replaced  in  the  jars,  the  abandoned  specimens  being  thrown  away. 
It  might  be  said  that  a small  brood  of  plum  curculios  was  bred  out 
of  these  same  pears  soon  after  the  midge  larvse  went  underground. 
Two  jars  were  selected  as  checks  and  set  aside,  receiving  no  applica- 
tion of  any  kind.  In  two  other  of  the  jars  a small  quantity  of 
nitrate  of  soda  was  spread  dry  upon  the  surface  of  the  ground,  to 
represent,  in  the  one  case,  a fair  top-dressing  under  ordinary  field 
conditions,  and  in  the  other  a heavy  dressing ; the  quantity  in  the 
second  jar  being  exactly  double  that  in  the  first.  The  amounts  were 
not  weighed,  as  they  were  too  small.  Two  other  jars  received  muriate 
of  potash,  about  the  same  in  quantity  as  in  the  case  of  the  nitrate, 
and  here  also  one  jar  received  exactly  double  the  quantity  placed  in 
the  other.  A third  lot  of  two  jars  was  treated  with  kainit,  the  amount 
of  kainit  applied  in  jar  No.  1 being  about  the  same  as  the  amount  of 
muriate  applied  in  jar  No.  2 ; while  in  the  second  kainit  jar  twice  as 
much  was  applied  as  was  contained  in  the  first.  These  eight  jars 
received  at  intervals  small  amounts  of  water,  sufficient  to  keep  them 
moist,  until  October  6th.  On  that  day  all  the  jars,  except  one  of  the 
checks,  were  examined. 

The  check-jar  which  was  first  examined  showed  numerous  speci- 
mens of  the  larvse  in  the  sand,  which  had  not  yet  formed  cocoons. 


11 


and  all  of  these  were  alive  and  apparently  quite  healthy.  There  were 
also  a very  large  number  of  cocoons  containing  unchanged  larvae,  and 
these  all  seemed  to  be  healthy  and  in  condition  to  transform  in  due 
time.  In  none  of  the  other  jars  examined  were  there  any  living  larvae 
lying  free  in  the  soil,  although  here  and  there  a few  dried  and 
shriveled  specimens  could  be  found ; and  in  none  of  the  other  jars 
was  there  anything  like  the  number  of  cocoons  found  in  the  one  first 
examined. 

Jar  No.  1,  muriate  of  potash,  found  no  free  larvae,  but  quite  a 
number  of  cocoons — in  bulk  perhaps  four- fifths  as  many  as  were 
found  in  the  check  lot ; but  of  these,  nearly  one-half  of  the  larvae 
examined  were  dead. 

Jar  No.  2,  containing  muriate  double  in  quantity  to  that  contained 
in  No.  1,  showed  no  free  larvae,  and  of  cocoons  about  as  many  as  in 
the  first  lot ; but  of  the  larvae  within  the  cocoons  about  three-fourths 
were  dead. 

Jar  No.  3,  containing  nitrate  of  soda,  a small  quantity,  had  no 
free  larvae,  and  of  cocoons  in  bulk  about  two-thirds  as  many  as  in  the 
check  lot;  but  in  the  cocoons  so  far  as  they  were  examined,  not  10 
per  cent,  of  the  larvae  were  alive  and  the  very  great  bulk  of  them 
were  dried  and  shriveled. 

Jar  No.  4,  containing  nitrate  of  soda,  double  the  quantity,  had 
nearly  as  many  cocoons  as  in  the  preceding;  but  certainly  not 
more  than  5 per  cent,  of  the  larvae  within  these  cocoons  were  alive. 

Jar  No.  5,  containing  kainit,  a small  quantity,  had  no  free  larvae, 
and  of  cocoons  about  two-thirds  of  the  check  lot,  or  about  the  same 
as  in  the  case  of  the  nitrate ; but  of  living  larvae  there  were  less  than 
3 per  cent,  within  the  cocoons. 

Jar  No.  6,  containing  kainit,  double  in  quantity  to  that  in  the  pre- 
ceding jar,  had  cocoons  in  bulk  equal  to  less  than  one-third  of  the 
check  lot,  and  I found  not  a single  living  larva  in  the  cocoons 
examined  by  me.  That  is  to  say,  not  one-third  of  the  larvae  in  the 
jar  ever  formed  cocoons,  and  those  that  did  seemed  all  of  them  to  be 
dead. 

It  may  be  said  that  the  examination  of  the  jars  was  made  as  follows  : 
The  entire  contents  were  dumped  into  a large  pan  and  water  added. 
The  pan  was  then  shaken  carefully,  the  dirty  water  with  the  loose 
material  floating  in  it  was  poured  off,  and  more  water  was  added 
until  it  remained  clear.  The  sand  was  then  gradually  washed  out, 


12 


and  there  remained  only  the  insect  larvae  and  their  cocoons.  These 
were  then  transferred  to  narrow  vials  of  exactly  the  same  size,  in 
order  that  a comparison  might  be  readily  made  and  then  a consid- 
erable number  of  specimens  of  each  lot  were  examined  in  order  to 
ascertain  the  proportion  of  living  larvae  within  the  cocoons.  The 
balance  of  the  material  remaining  in  each  vial  was  preserved  in  alco- 
hol for  any  further  or  future  examination  that  might  be  deemed 
desirable.  During  the  winter  the  second  check-jar  received  little 
attention,  and  the  rubber  band  holding  the  cheese-cloth  cover  rotted 
and  broke,  giving  the  maturing  midges  a chance  to  escape.  Early  in 
April  I found  only  a lot  of  empty  cocoons  and  pupa  skins  and  a few 
dry  and  shriveled  larvae. 

Earlier  in  the  season  a small  portion  of  the  pears  set  aside  for  gen- 
eral purposes  were  selected  out,  in  order  to  test  the  effectiveness  of 
chloride  of  magnesium.  The  larvae  were  placed  in  a dish  containing 
sand,  which  was  thoroughly  moistened  with  the  solution  of  one-fourth 
of  an  ounce  of  the  chloride  in  sixteen  ounces  of  water ; twenty-four 
hours  afterward  the  insects  had  burrowed  to  the  bottom  of  the  dish 
and  were  showing  no  signs  of  injury.  As  the  sand  was  dry,  clean 
water  was  added,  and  yet,  in  twenty- four  hours  thereafter,  the  in- 
sects were  alive  and  apparently  healthy.  Again  the  sand  was  moist- 
ened with  the  solution  and  again  it  proved  ineffective.  A sprinkle  of 
kainit  was  put  on  the  surface  and  left  to  be  dissolved  by  the  moisture 
already  in  the  sand,  and  twelve  hours  thereafter  all  the  insects  were 
dead  or  dying. 

From  Mr.  White’s  experience  and  from  the  results  of  the  experi- 
ments above  detailed,  I feel  justified  in  concluding  that  we  have,  in 
kainit,  used  rather  heavily,  in  fertilizing  quantity,  an  efficient  remedy 
for  this  insect. 

Remedies. 

Under  previous  heads  I have  already  indicated  a line  of  action. 
We  cannot  save  the  fruit  after  it  has  been  attacked  by  the  midge 
larvae,  nor  can  we  prevent  the  midges  from  laying  their  eggs  in  the 
blossoms.  It  has  been  suggested  that  we  could  by  the  use  of  arsenites 
blast  the  blossoms  after  the  midges  had  laid  their  eggs  and  thus  de- 
stroy the  entire  brood  by  sacrificing  the  fruit.  Where  the  midges  are 
sufficiently  abundant  to  destroy  the  crop  this  may  be  a good  plan ; 
but  it  will  be  better  if  possible  to  prevent  their  increase  to  that  extent. 


13 


In  the  first  place  keep  a close  watch  on  all  Lawrence  tieos,  and 
have  a few  Lawrence  trees  in  the  orchard  to  attract  such  midges  as 
may  come.  In  this  way  the  first  appearance  of  the  insects' will  be 
readily  noticed. 

2.  When  infested  pears  are  found — and  they  should  be  examined 
soon  after  they  are  well  set — if  the  trees  are  not  too  large,  pick  off 
every  infested  or  suspected  pear  and  destroy  completely.  A very 
little  practice  enables  any  one  to  recognize  an  infested  pear  at  sight. 
This  is  important  to  prevent  increase  on  your  own  land. 

3.  If  the  trees  are  too  large  to  be  picked  over,  the  soil  beneath 
those  infest*  d should  be  cultivated  and  then  well  rolled  to  compact  it, 
not  later  than  the  last  week  in  May,  and  about  the  middle  of  June 
kainit  at  the  rate  of  1 ,000  pounds  to  the  acre  should  be  applied  as  a 
top-dressing  over  the  full  extent  of  ground  covered  by  the  branches  of 
the  infested  tree.  The  natural  moisture  of  the  soil  will  dissolve  the 
kainit  and  will  bring  a concentrated  solution  into  contact  with  the 
naked  midge  larvae  to  their  destruction. 

4.  Instead  of  kainit  on  limited  areas  the  kerosene  emulsion  diluted 
ten  times  may  be  used,  wetting  the  soil  thoroughly  so  far  as  the 
branches  extend.  If  this  is  applied  before  a rain  it  will  be  washed 
down  deeply  enough  to  reach  all  larvae  to  their  destruction. 

5.  If  an  orchard  is  generally  infested,  the  following  practice  is 
recommended : Cultivate  as  usual,  or,  if  the  orchard  is  in  grass  or 
clover,  plow  under  after  June  15th  as  soon  as  may  be.  Top-dress 
with  kainit  1,000  pounds  to  the  acre,  to  benefit  trees  as  well  as  to  kill 
insects.  As  soon  as  proper,  say  early  in  August,  sow  crimson  clover. 
This  will  use  up  the  potash  not  required  by  the  fruit  trees,  and  will 
store  nitrogen,  as  well  as  occupy  the  ground.  Early  in  the  following 
spring  turn  this  sod  under  as  deeply  as  may  be  proper.  It  should  be 
done  before  the  pear  buds  are  developed,  in  order  to  head  off  and 
destroy  any  midges  then  in  the  pupa  state  near  the  surface  of  the  soil. 

I need  hardly  say  that  this  practice  is,  at  the  same  time,  the  best  for 
the  benefit  of  the  orchard. 

If  none  of  the  methods  advised  are  adopted,  frequent  cultivation  or 
d late,  rather  deep  plowing  may  be  effective  to  some  extent. 

The  practical  benefit  to  be  derived  from  the  suggestions  above 
made  will  be  in  proportion  to  the  generality  with  which  they  are 
acted  upon.  If  the  first  and  second  and  third  or  fourth  suggestions 
are  universally  carried  out,  the  fifth  will  not  become  necessary ; but 


14 


it  mpst  be  iemeinbered  that  one  neglected  orchard  will  stock  an  entire 
district,  an<Wh'at' th&te  is  no  way  of  keeping  off  the  midges  on  the 
land  oh  wbi6h  they  bcc&d,  'though  they  will  seek  their  food  primarily 
where  they  first  * hatch*  arid  will  usually  increase  in  one  orchard  until 
it  no  lon^ef'  suVtaiW  them  before  wandering  to  another. 

Taking" 'out  Lawrence  trees  will  not  help  matters,  for  though  they 
are  favorites,  yet,  lacking  them,  other  varieties  are  taken.  In  fact,  by 
concentrating  the  attack,  Lawrence  trees  are  positively  advantageous, 
and  it  may  often  be  possible  by  destroying  the  entire  fruit-set  of  a few 
Lawrence  trees  to  protect  the  balance  of  the  orchard. 


CRIMSON  OR  SCARLET  CLOVER. 

ITS  GROWTH,  COMPOSITION,  AND  USEFULNESS. 


NEW  JERSEY 

AGRICULTURAL 

Experiment  Station 


100 


NEW  JERSEY 


Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 

BULLETIN  100. 

JUNE  11,  1894. 


Crimson  or  Scarlet  Clover. 

Trifolium  Incarnatum. 


BY  EDWARD  B.  VOORHEES. 


This  clover  is  known  under  the  name  of  “ Crimson  Clover,” 
“ Scarlet  Clover,”  and  “ Italian  or  German  Clover.”  The  color  of 
the  blossom  is  decidedly  crimson,  hence  the  name  “ Crimson  Clover” 
is  usually  given  the  preference  and  should  be  used  exclusively,  to 
avoid  confusion. 

In  this  State  this  clover  has  been  successfully  and  extensively 
grown  by  a gradually  increasing  number  of  farmers  for  the  past  five 
seasons,  though  it  is  yet  a new  plant  in  the  sense  that  its  adaptability 
and  usefulness  under  the  varying  conditions  of  climate,  season  and 
farm  practice  have  not  been  thoroughly  tested. 

Experiments  that  have  been  previously  conducted  here,  chiefly  to 
test  its  hardiness,  and  the  results  of  the  experience  of  practical 
farmers  have  established  for  it  the  following  points : 

1.  That  it  will  grow  in  any  part  of  New  Jersey,  and  that  it  is 
quite  as  hardy  as  the  common  red  variety. 

2.  That  when  seeded  between  July  15th  and  September  15th  it 
will  mature  from  three  to  four  weeks  earlier  than  red  clover. 


4 


3.  That  since  it  is  an  annual  plant,  and  differs  from  other  clovers 
in  its  time  of  growth  and  development,  it  cannot  be  regarded  as  a 
substitute  for  them. 

4.  That  the  quality  of  the  fodder  and  hay  is  superior  to  that  of 
red  clover. 

These  studies  have  also  indicated  that  this  plant  possesses  character- 
istics which  make  it  particularly  valuable  for  a variety  of  purposes 
in  our  State,  not  now  fulfilled  by  any  other  plant.  To  test  these 
points  was  the  purpose  of  the  experiments  here  reported. 


Plan  of  the  Experiments. 

The  experiments  were  planned  to  further  study  : The  adapta- 
bility of  this  clover  to  different  conditions  of  soil ; and  the  compo- 
sition of  the  whole  plant  at  different  stages  of  growth,  in  order  to 
determine  its  value  as  a green  manure,  as  pasture,  or  as  a soiling  crop, 
when  used  at  different  seasons.  Samples  which  would  represent  the 
tops,  stubble,  and  roots,  the  latter  plow-deep,  or  about  eight  inches, 
were  to  be  taken  at  four  stages  of  growth : first,  in  the  latter  part  of 
April ; second,  in  early  May ; third,  when  the  plant  was  in  bloom ; 
and  fourth,  after  the  plant  was  fully  matured.  These  dates  corre- 
sponding to  periods  when  it  might  be  desirable  to  use  the  crop  in 
different  parts  of  the  State ; for  instance,  in  southern  portions  of  the 
State,  spring  plowing  for  corn  and  sweet  potatoes  is  usually  finished 
the  last  week  in  April,  while  in  the  central  and  northern  portions, 
particularly  for  corn,  plowing  may  be,  and  frequently  is,  delayed 
until  the  second  week  in  May  or  later.  The  first  samples  taken  show 
the  accumulation  of  food  and  fertilizer  constituents  by  the  whole  crop 
and  its  parts,  when  it  is  desirable  to  utilize  it  as  green  manure,  or  as 
pasture,  while  the  samples  taken  later  have  reference  to  the  utilization 
of  the  plant  both  as  a green  manure  and  as  a fodder-crop,  when  at  its 
best  for  both  purposes. 

Location  of  Experiments  and  Description  of  Soils. 

The  plots  were  one  acre  in  area  and  located  as  follows  : 

Plot  No.  A.  Theo.  Brown,  Swedesboro,  Gloucester  county. 

“ “ 1.  J.  M.  White,  New  Brunswick,  Middlesex  county. 

“ “ 2.  College  Farm,  New  Brunswick,  Middlesex  county. 


5 


In  the  original  plan,  one  plot  was  located  on  the  farm  of  Hal 
Allaire,  Allaire,  Monmouth  county,  on  very  light  land,  which  had 
not  been  previously  cropped.  Though  a fair  catch  was  secured,  the 
growth  was  too  light  to  warrant  a continuation  of  the  work,  and  plot 
A was  selected  in  its  stead.  All  plots  were  seeded  with  16  pounds 
per  acre. 

No.  A.  The  land  is  a sandy  loam,  with  a porous,  sandy  subsoil ; it 
is  in  a fair  state  of  fertility  and  produces  good  crops  of  red  clover. 
The  clover  was  seeded  in  corn  August  1st,  and  lightly  harrowed  in 
one  way  of  the  row ; a fair  catch  was  secured,  very  thick  between  the 
corn  rows  and  thinner  upon  the  ridges.  It  made  a rapid  growth, 
averaging  five  inches  in  height  at  the  beginning  of  winter,  which  it 
survived  without  loss. 

No.  1 was  seeded  in  an  eight-year-old  peach  orchard.  The  plot 
included  four  rows  of  trees  across  the  orchard.  Part  of  the  land  is 
very  sandy  with  sandy  subsoil ; the  remainder  is  a sandy  loam  with 
clayey  subsoil.  The  land,  though  not  naturally  rich,  has  been  well 
fertilized  with  the  mineral  constituents,  phosphoric  acid  and  potash. 
The  plot  was  seeded  July  25th  and  the  seed  covered  with  a “ Breed’s 
Weeder.”  An  even  catch  was  secured  which  grew  rapidly  in  the  fall, 
and  apparently  survived  the  winter  without  the  loss  of  a plant. 

On  No.  2 the  land  is  a rather  heavy,  gravelly  clay  loam,  with  tight 
clay  subsoil  and  in  a good  state  of  fertility,  though  not  well  adapted 
for  clover.  It  was  seeded  September  1st,  after  a potato  crop,  which 
had  been  dressed  with  yard  manure  at  the  rate  of  12  tons  per  acre. 
The  weather  was  very  dry  at  time  of  seeding  and  continued  hot  and 
dry,  which  resulted  in  an  uneven  catch,  thick  in  parts  of  the  land 
and  thin  in  others.  The  plants  made  a rapid  growth  before  winter, 
where  a good  stand  was  secured — an  almost  solid  mat  about  five 
inches  high.  A part  of  the  plot  was  located  on  a ridge  higher  than 
the  surrounding  land,  and  on  portions  unprotected  by  snow  a number 
of  plants  were  frozen. 

Methods  of  Sampling. 

The  original  samples  were  taken  in  the  following  manner : 

An  area  representing  a full  stand  was  selected  and  one  square  foot 
marked  off;  the  soil  was  removed  to  the  requisite  depth,  and  the 
block  lifted  out  entire.  The  whole  mass  was  then  placed  in  a box 
and  taken  to  the  laboratory,  where  the  earth  and  foreign  matter  were 


6 


carefully  removed.  The  fibrous  roots  which  became  separated  from 
the  main  root  in  removing  the  soil  were  collected  in  a fine  sieve. 

The  samples  taken  April  24th  were  separated  into  tops  and  roots. 
In  those  taken  May  12th,  and  subsequently,  the  tops  were  removed 
before  separating  the  earth,  and  the  remainder  of  the  plant  divided 
into  stubble  and  roots,  the  proportion  of  stubble  representing,  as  near 
as  possible,  field  conditions.  These  samples  fairly  represented  the 
whole  plant,  though  it  was  impossible  to  prevent  slight  losses  of  the 
finer  roots. 


Yield. 

Although  accurate  weights  were  made  of  the  yield  of  the  whole 
plant,  and  of  the  different  portions,  per  square  foot,  the  object  of  this 
was  rather  to  determine  the  relation  by  weight  of  the  different  parts 
of  the  plant  at  different  stages  of  growth,  rather  than  as  a basis  for 
calculating  the  amount  of  food  or  fertilizer  constituents  in  the  crop. 

In  order  to  arrive  at  a fair  estimate  of  the  yield  on  a field  basis  a 
square  rod,  representing  full  stand  in  experiments  Nos.  1 and  2,  was 
carefully  cut  and  weighed  on  May  24th,  when  the  plants  were  full 
grown  and  before  there  was  any  danger  of  mechanical  losses.  It  was 
found  that  the  average  yield  thus  secured  was  60.34  per  cent,  of  that 
secured  from  the  calculations  upon  the  square-foot  basis.  This  factor 
was,  therefore,  applied  to  all  yields  on  the  square-foot  basis,  which 
converted  them  into  what  is  believed  to  be  a fair  field  basis  for  a com- 
parative study.  Table  1 gives  detailed  information  in  reference  to 
the  different  samples  taken  : 


7 


Table  1. 


Number  of 
experiment. 

Date. 

Number  of  plants 
per  square  foot. 

Height  of  plants 
in  inches. 

1 

Weight  in  grams 
of  green  tops  per 
square  foot. 

GRAMS  01 
PER 

E c 
G* 

EH 

i’  AIR-DRY  S 
SQUARE  FO 

« 

73 

m 

UBSTANCE 
OT  IN 

1 

M 

A 

86 

7 

53.3 

27 

1 

April  24. 

18 

6 

34.0 

20 

2 

66 

5 



38.0 

15 

A xrprftccp  

1 

| 57 

6 

1 

41.8 

! 21 

1 

1 

1 

May  12. 

19 

12 

453 

62 

11 

18 

2 

50 

14 

658 

72 

13 

25 

Average 

35 

13 

556 

i 67 

12 

22 

1 

May  24. 

19 

22 

516 

87 

12 

14 

■ 2 

37 

28 

570 

105 

11 

29 

Average 

28 

1 

25 

543 

96 

12 

22 

2 ! 

May  31. 

1 

1 

35  i 

28 

658 

124 

9 

18 

The  particularly  noticeable  features  in  this  table  are,  first,  the  very 
wide  variation  in  the  number  of  plants  per  square  foot,  though  in  all 
oases  the  samples  represented  what  was  regarded  as  a full  stand  for 
the  field,  and  second,  that  the  yield  of  green  tops,  or  air-dry  matter, 
is  not  in  proportion  to  the  number  of  plants.  The  tendency  of  the 
plant  to  overcome  the  disadvantages  of  thin  seeding  or  a poor  catch 
by  stooling  largely  is,  therefore,  apparent,  though  this  peculiarity 
would  doubtless  be  less  marked  on  poorer  soils  than  those  here  rep- 
resented. Owing  to  the  variations  due  to  differences  in  locality,  kind 
of  soil,  evenness  of  stand,  etc.,  the  samples  taken  on  the  same  date 
are  averaged  and  this  average  yield  used  in  subsequent  calculations 
rather  than  the  data  from  individual  samples. 


Plate  I. 

Plate  No.  I.  is  a photograph  taken  April  24th  of  the  present  year;  its  main  purpose  is  to  illus- 
trate the  stooling-  capacity  of  the  plant,  and  to  show  the.  size  and  number  of  the  main  roots. 

This  single  stool  has  eighty-six  branches;  the  height  to  the  tips  of  the  leaves  is  twelve  inches ; 
as  it  stood  in  the  field  it  covered  more  than  one  square  foot. 


9 


How  the  Crops  Were  Used. 

The  crop  on  experiment  No.  A was  turned  under  April  28th  and 
the  field  planted  with  corn,  without  manure.  It  was  not  possible  to 
make  a comparative  study  of  the  growth  of  corn  with  and  without 
manure  (the  green  manure),  though  the  crop  made  a very  rapid  early 
growth  and,  notwithstanding  a severe  drouth  in  July,  produced  a 
good  yield. 

The  crop  on  No.  1 was  plowed  under  May  28th,  and  while  the 
early  growth  of  the  peach  trees  was  apparently  somewhat  retarded  by 
the  crop  of  clover,  they  gained  rapidly  after  it  was  plowed  in,  and 
both  the  growth  and  fruitage  were  more  satisfactory  than  on  tho 
remainder  of  the  orchard,  where  an  application  of  two  pounds  of' 
nitrate  of  soda  was  applied  to  each  tree,  the  manuring  in  other 
respects  being  the  same.  The  crop  on  the  whole  orchard  was  good. 
The  trees  this  spring  are  healthy  and  vigorous  and  set  full  of  fruit. 
Mr.  White  was  so  well  pleased  with  the  results  of  the  experiment 
that  both  his  peach  and  pear  orchards,  in  all  about  thirty  acres,  were 
seeded  last  fall.  A good  crop  was  secured  and  used  as  green  manure 
this  spring. 

The  clover  on  plot  No.  2 was  used  as  a soiling  crop  for  dairy  cattle. 
Cutting  began  on  May  15th  and  continued  until  June  2d.  It  proved 
an  excellent  forage ; the  animals  consumed  it  with  relish  and  increased 
perceptibly  in  the  flow  of  milk.  The  large  yields  secured  on  the 
three  plots  differing  radically  in  character  and  fertility  of  soil,  and  in 
methods  and  time  of  seeding,  indicate  a wide  adaptability  of  the 
plant  to  varying  conditions. 


10 


Table  2. 


© 

a 

3 

Date  of 
Sampling. 

GRAMS  DRY  MATTER  CON- 
TAINED IN  ONE  SQUARE  FOOT. 

PER  CENT.  OF  DRY 
MATTER  IN 

.O 

ta 

m 

Number  c 
Experime 

3 

o 

H 

Tops. 

Stubble. 

Roots. 

Tops. 

Stubble. 

Roots. 

821 

A 

April  24. 

u 

66.8 

45.7 

21.1 

68.4 

31.6 

817 

1 

45.5 

28.8 

16.7 

63.2 

36.8 

819 

2 

(( 

44.6 

32.4 

12.2 

70.3 

29.7 

A vera  p-p 

52.3 

35.6 

16.7 

: 67.3 

32.7 

o 

828 

1 

May  12, 

78.0 

54.0 

8.8 

15.2 

69.2 

11.4 

19.4 

827 

2 

« 

94.3 

63.8 

9.9 

20.6 

67.6 

10.5 

21.9 

A verae^e 

86.1 

58.9 

9.4 

17.9 

68.4 

11.0 

20.7 

831 

1 

May  24. 

99.6 

78.5 

9.3 

11.8 

78.8 

9.4 

11.8 

$34 

2 

u 

125.4 

92.5 

9.1 

23.8 

73.7 

7.3 

19.0 

Average 

112.5 

85.5 

9.2 

17.3 

76.3 

8.3 

15.4 

o 

837 

2 

May  31. 

132.8 

109.8 

8.0 

15.0 

82.6 

6.1 

11.3 

The  data  in  Table  2 are  derived  from  Table  1,  and  show  the  total 
dry  matter  as  well  as  the  dry  matter  contained  per  square  foot  in 
tops,  roots  and  stubble,  for  the  different  samples.  The  per  cent,  of 
dry  matter  in  the  various  parts  of  the  plant  is  also  shown. 

The  important  point  brought  out  by  a study  of  this  table  is  that 
the  amount  of  dry  matter  contained  in  the  roots  is  practically  uni- 
form for  the  different  dates ; the  weight  of  roots  in  a given  area  is 
quite  as  great  on  April  24th,  when  the  tops  are  six  inches  high,  as 
upon  May  31st,  when  the  plant  is  full  grown. 

In  other  words,  it  is  shown  that  the  accumulation  of  dry  matter 
after  the  first  date  of  sampling — over  150  per  cent. — was  found 
almost  entirely  in  the  tops  and  stubble. 


11 


The  Composition  of  the  Dry  Matter. 

Tables  3 A,  3 B and  3 C show  the  composition  of  the  dry  matter 
of  the  tops,  stubble  and  roots.  In  3 A and  3 B both  the  food  and 
fertilizer  analyses  are  given,  while  in  3 C the  fertilizer  analysis  only 
is  given.  The  percentage  of  crude  ash  does  not  include  the  sand  and 
insoluble  matter  mechanically  adhering  to  the  samples. 

Table  3 A. 


COMPOSITION  OF  TOPS. 


POUNDS  CONTAINED  IN  100  LBS.  Of  DRY  MATTER  OF 


A 

a 

€ 

o 

5 

ft 

Cm 

O 

<D 

A 

a 

s 

ft 

a 

eg 

m 

cm 

O 

03 

c3 

ft 

<D 

fl 

u 

<v 

ft 

(V 

T3 

A 

00 

< 

<o 

>o 

3 

d 

•S3 

d o 

<v 
6 g 
Aja 

2 

o 

if 

a ° 

S 

9 

o 

o 

ft  . 

SS 

r*  o 

A 

1 

w 

& 

a 

o 

O 

O 

Oft 

Od5 

<!ft 

2 

ft«J 

ft 

821 

A 

April  24. 

3.31 

16  33 

12.73 

22.19 

45.44 

16.30 

3.55 

0.61 

3.75 

$17 

1 

“ 

4.26 

14.84 

10.79 

22.03 

48.08 

18.73 

3.52 

1.00 

2.76 

819 

2 

“ 

4.11 

15.19 

9.97 

24.41 

46.32 

20.21 

3.91 

0.93 

2.51 

AvsrflffP 

3.89 

15.45 

11.16 

22.88 

46.61 

18.42 

3.66 

0.85 

3.01 

828 

1 

May  12. 

3.89 

16.36 

11.91 

23.86 

43.98 

16.76 

3.82 

1.22 

3.19 

827 

2 

ii 

3.88 

16.51 

10.18 

1 

22.73 

46.70 

16.37 

3.64 

0.81 

3.14 

AvGraere 

3.89 

16.44 

11.04 

23.30 

45.34 

16.57 

! 3.73 

1.02 

3.17 

831 

i 

May  24. 

3.38 

28.92 

7.92 

18  56 

41.22 

13.07 

2.97 

0.68 

1.93 

834 

2 

“ 

3.39 

26.51 

8.61 

19.50 

41.99 

13.37 

3.12 

0.75 

1.88 

A VPTfl.S'fi 

3.39 

27.72 

8.27 

19.03 

41.61 

13.22 

| 

3.05 

0.72 

1.91 

837 

2 

May  81. 

3.16 

28.53 

8.80 

17.65 

41.86 

12.72 

2.82 

0.67 

2.54 

12 


Table  3 B. 


fl 

COMPOSITION  OF  STUBBLE. 

Fh 

CD 

a 

o 

A 

bb 

a 

POUNDS  CONTAINED  IN  100  LBS. 

OF  DRY  MATTER  OF 

«o 

a 

p 

& 

a 

o 

3 

0Q 

W 

o 

i-t 

Q) 

a 

p 

fc 

P, 

a 

c3 

W 

U-i 

o 

o 

"3 

Q 

j Crude  Fat. 

j Crude  Fiber. 

Crude  Ash. 

Crude 

Protein. 

Carbo- 

hydrates. 

Albuminoid 

Protein. 

Nitrogen. 

Phosphoric 

Acid. 

Potash. 

830 

i 

May  12. 

2.71 

22.66 

10.98 

13.04 

50.61 

10.71 

2.09 

0.96 

2.28 

826 

2 

“ 

1.85 

23.36 

13.60 

12.34 

48.85 

10.26 

1.97 

0.55 

3.03 

Average 

2.28 

23.01 

1 

12.29 

12  69 

49.73 

10.49 

2.03 

0.76 

2.66 

832 

1 

May  24. 

2.31 

28.44 

9.34 

11.25 

48.66 

8.85 

1.82 

0.56 

1.22 

836 

2 

“ 

2.06 

31.04 

8.80 

12.85 

45.25 

11.06 

2.06 

0.42 

1.04 

AvfirftPfi 

I 

2.19 

29.74 

9.07 

12.05 

46.96 

9.96 

1.94 

0.49 

1.13 

838 

1 

! 2 

May  31. 

1.64 

31.78 

9.67 

| 12.21 

44.70 

10.36 

1.95 

0.52 

2.88 

The  analyses  of  the  samples  of  stubble,  in  addition  to  their  value  in 
connection  with  the  analyses  of  tops  and  roots  in  showing  the  compo- 
sition of  the  whole  plant,  are  interesting  in  indicating  a high  feeding 
value  for  this  part  of  the  plant. 

The  dry  matter  is  nearly  50  per  cent,  richer  in  protein  than  the 
dry  matter  of  timothy  hay,  and  nearly  as  rich  in  carbohydrates  and 
fat.  This  is  accounted  for  by  the  lower  content  of  crude  fiber  in  the 
clover. 

The  stems  of  this  plant  are  less  woody  than  those  of  timothy  or  red 
clover,  thus  materially  increasing  the  relative  digestibility  of  the 
whole  plant. 


13 


Table  3 O. 


o» 

rQ 

a 

£ 

a 

.2 

« 

m 

Number  of  Experiment. 

Date  of  Sampling. 

COMPOSITION  OF  ROOTS. 

CONTAINED  IN  100  LBS.  OF  DRY  MATTER. 

Crude 

Ash. 

Nitrogen. 

Phosphoric 

Acid. 

Potash. 

822 

A 

April  24. 

15.24 

2.71 

0.56 

2.61 

818 

1 

1C 

9.94 

3.08 

1.17 

1.62 

820 

2 

« 

9.87 

3.04 

0.89 

1.20 

Average 

11.68 

2.61 

0.87 

1.81 

829 

1 

May  12. 

10.32 

3.10 

1.29 

1.23 

825 

2 

u 

9.87 

2.72 

0.68 

1.12 

Average 

10.10 

2.91 

0.99 

1.18 

833 

1 

May  24. 

9.44 

2.83 

0.88 

0.90 

835 

2 

■ ! 

9.67 

2.65 

0.63 

0.73 

Average, 

9.56 

1 

2.74 

0.76 

0.82 

839 

2 

May  31. 

10.73 

2.73 

0.81 

1.45 

It  will  be  observed  that  considerable  variations  occur  in  the  com- 
position of  samples  secured  on  the  same  date  from  different  localities ; 
this  is  particularly  noticeable  in  the  ash  content  and  in  the  percentage 
of  fertilizer  constituents,  the  sample  in  Experiment  A,  April  24th, 
showing  very  much  less  phosphoric  acid  and  much  more  potash  than 
either  of  the  other  two. 

The  composition  in  reference  to  food  constituents  is  not  widely  dif- 
ferent upon  April  24th  and  May  12th,  though  on  the  former  date  the 
whole  top  was  included,  while  on  the  latter  the  stubble  is  separated. 

The  composition  after  May  12th  shows  mainly  a decided  increase 


14 


in  crude  fiber  and  consequent  decrease  of  the  other  constituents,  as 
was  to  be  expected  in  the  development  of  the  plant.  The  percentage 
of  the  ash  constituents  on  May  24th  and  May  31st,  particularly  in 
the  case  of  potash,  differs  widely  and  is  not  in  accordance  with  what 
was  to  be  expected,  though  it  is  uniform  throughout  for  tops,  stubble 
and  roots.  The  chemical  analyses  were  repeated  in  every  particular 
and  found  correct.  Samples  will  be  taken  again  this  year  at  as  nearly 
as  possible  the  same  stage  of  growth  in  order  to  further  study  this 
point,  though  this  part  of  the  analysis  does  not  have  any  particular 
bearing  upon  a study  of  the  value  of  the  plant  from  a practical- 
standpoint. 

Another  point  of  interest  is  shown  in  reference  to  the  proportion 
of  true  protein ; the  highest  percentage — 80.5 — is  shown  in  the 
immature  plant  on  April  24th ; on  the  later  dates  the  percentage  is 
much  lower  and  practically  uniform,  ranging  from  69.4  to  72  per  cent. 

The  composition  of  the  stubble  and  roots  shows  no  marked  change 
other  than  those  indicated  from  a study  of  the  tops. 

Practical  Application  of  the  Results. 

The  results  secured  permit  of  a discussion  of  the  usefulness  of  the 
plant  from  three  standpoints : 

1.  As  a Green  Manure. 

2.  As  a Pasture. 

3.  As  a Soiling  Crop. 


1. 

AS  A GREEN  MANURE. 

Agricultural  writers  have  for  a long  time  advocated  what  is  termed 
“ green  manuring,”  that  is,  the  growing  of  crops  for  the  sole  purpose 
of  turning  under  in  order  to  improve  the  soil,  particularly  in  its 
physical  character  and  in  its  content  of  nitrogen.  This  system  of 
manuring,  in  the  strictest  sense,  is  not,  however,  widely  practiced  in 
this  State,  first,  because  there  is  a well- rooted  prejudice  against  turning 
under  a matured  crop  which  contains  good  food ; second,  because  this 
method  does  not  permit  of  the  continuous  use  of  the  land  for  money 
crops,  and  third,  because  of  a rather  indefinite  idea  of  the  true 
advantages  of  such  a practice  when  properly  conducted. 


15 


Conditions  that  Warrant  Green  Manuring. 

It  is  a wasteful  practice  to  plow  under  a matured  crop,  though 
there  are  special  conditions  of  farming  which  warrant  it,  viz  , where 
the  soils  are  only  well  adapted  for  small  fruits  and  vegetables,  or  are 
naturally  poor  or  worn  out,  upon  which  the  addition  of  organic  or 
vegetable  matter  is  essential. 

In  this  State  there  are  just  such  lands  as  the  former,  which  receive 
annually  heavy  dressings  of  yard  or  city  manure,  and  one  of  the  chief 
purposes  of  which  is  to  supply  the  requisite  organic  matter.  This 
practice  is  expensive  both  of  money  and  labor,  and  the  introduction 
of  systematic  methods  of  green  manuring  here  is  well  worthy  of  con- 
sideration. In  the  second  case  the  improvement  by  means  of  city 
manure  is,  in  proportion  to  the  returns,  still  more  expensive  and  not 
to  be  recommended  as  a general  practice. 

The  Advantage  of  Catch  Crops. 

The  loss  of  use  of  the  land  for  a season  is  a serious  consideration  in 
any  case,  but  more  so  where  high  farming  is  practiced,  yet  a proper 
selection  of  catch  crops,  i.  e.  those  which  do  not  materially  interfere 
with  regular  rotations,  will  obviate  in  a large  degree  this  objection. 

As  a catch  crop  for  green  manuring  this  clover  possesses  many 
advantages,  chief  among  which  is  that  it  takes  well  without  cover 
crop  in  growing  corn,  tomatoes,  orchards,  berry  patches,  etc. ; it  also 
thrives  in  late  summer  and  fall  after  other  crops  have  ceased  growing, 
and  it  makes  a rapid  growth  in  the  early  season,  furnishing  a consid- 
erable crop  before  ordinary  spring  plowing  begins. 


Why  Legumes  Should  he  Used. 

The  results  secured  from  green  manuring  are  often  disappointing, 
because  the  crops  used  for  the  purpose  derive  their  essential  fertilizing 
constituents,  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid  and  potash,  entirely  from  the 
soil ; buckwheat  and  rye,  frequently  used  for  the  purpose,  belong  to 
this  class  of  plants,  and  the  only  advantageous  accumulation  in  the 
soil  from  their  use  consists  in  the  carbon,  hydrogen  and  oxygen,  from 
their  organic  structure.  Green  manuring  with  these  crops,  while  per- 
haps of  value,  is  much  less  so  than  when  those  are  used  which  possess 
the  power  of  gathering  nitrogen  from  the  air ; a fact  now  well  estab- 
lished for  plants  of  the  legume  family,  as  clover,  peas,  beans,  lupins, 


16 


etc. ; these  plants  enrich  the  soil  in  the  expensive  element  nitrogen 
derived  from  the  air,  while  the  others  mentioned  only  return  to  the 
soil  the  nitrogen  previously  existing  in  it. 

Table  4. 


YIELD  IN  POUNDS  PER  ACRE  OF 


April  24. 


May  12. 


May  24. 


May  31. 


In 


Tops... 

Roots. 


Total.. 


Tops 

Stubble. 
Roots 


Total. 


Tops 

Stubble., 
Roots 


Total.. 


Tops 

Stubble. 
Roots 


Total. 


21,048 


31,526 


31,498 


37,976 


o* 


2,040 

992 


3,032 


3,415 

547 

1,031 


4,992 


4,967 

548 

1,004 


6,519 


,356 


870 


7,695 


1,812 

875 


2,687 


3,038 

479 

927 


4,444 


4,557 


908 


5,963 


5,797 

424 

776 


6,997 


228 

116 


344 


377 


104 


548 


411 

50 

96 


557 


559 

45 

93 


74.6 

29.1 


103.7 

127.3 
11.0 
30.0 

168.3 


151.7 

10.4 

27.5 

189.6 

179.2 

9.1 

23.7 

212.0 


o.s 


17.2 


61.4 

18.0 


25.8  79.4 


34.6  108.1 


1.3 

10.1 


46.0 


35.5 
2.6 
7.5 

45.6 


42.5 

2.4 

7.0 

51.9 


13.9 

12.1 


134.1 


108.8 


160.4 

13.5 

12.6 


186.5 


The  object  of  Table  4 is  to  show  the  calculated  yield  of  green 
clover,  and  the  amount  of  organic  matter  and  fertilizer  constituents 
contained  per  acre,  calculated  from  the  data  secured  and  which  may 
be  regarded  as  good  crops,  at  the  different  stages  of  growth.  The 
height  in  inches,  as  shown  in  a previous  table,  is  a better  guide  as  to 
the  period  of  growth  than  the  date  of  cutting,  since  in  an  earlier 
season  cuttings  on  April  24th  and  May  12th  would  have  shown  much 
larger  yields. 


Plate  II. 

Plate  No.  II  shows  the  size  of  the  clover  on  April  24th  this  year ; on  the  same  date  in  1893  it 
was  six  inches  high,  this  year  it  was  ten  inches  high.  The  five  plants  here  shown  weie  not  sepa- 
rated from  each  other,  thus  representing  the  vigor  of  the  growth  from  a comparatively  thick 
seeding. 

The  mass  of  fibrous  roots  also  indicates  a wonderful  feeding  capacity  and  explains  its  rapid 
early  growth.  These  plants  were  taken  from  a field  of  four  acres  upon*  the  College  farm.  The 
seed  was  sown  in  corn  July  26th,  and  though  the  weather  for  nearly  a month  after  seeding  was 
very  unfavorable,  a good  catch  was  secured,  which  withstood  the  winter  perfectly. 


18 


The  yield  of  green  clover  in  the  whole  top  on  April  24th  is  shown 
to  be  practically  10J  tons;  on  May  12th  and  24th  the  yields  are 
nearly  identical  at  15.75  tons,  while  on  May  31st  the  yield  is  nearly 
19  tons  per  acre.  It  is  observed,  however,  that  as  the  plant  increased 
in  growth  the  proportion  of  dry  matter  relative  to  total  product  also 
gradually  increased ; the  yield  of  green  clover  is  almost  identical 
upon  May  12th  and  upon  May  24th,  while  the  yield  of  dry  matter 
is  over  45  per  cent,  greater  on  the  24th  than  on  the  12th.  The  pro- 
portion of  dry  matter  increases  as  the  plant  matures. 

The  Relation  of  Tops  to  Roots. 

The  table  also  shows  that  by  far  the  largest  amount  of  organic 
matter  and  plant-food  is  contained  in  the  tops,  even  at  the  first  cut- 
ting, when  the  plants  were  six  inches  high,  and  that  there  is  practi- 
cally no  increase  in  the  organic  matter  and  fertilizer  constituents 
contained  in  the  roots  after  that  time.  The  roots  had  then  reached 
their  full  development  in  this  respect,  and  the  amount  of  constituents 
contained  in  them  at  different  periods  afterwards  remained  practically 
constant. 

The  gain  of  organic  matter  and  fertilizer  constituents  in  the  tops, 
including  stubble,  constantly  increased  until  maturity.  On  April 
24th,  roughly,  two- thirds  of  the  total  plant- food  was  contained  in  the 
tops;  on  May  12th  the  proportion  had  increased  to  five-sixths,  on 
May  24th  to  seven-eighths,  and  on  May  31st  to  nine-tenths. 

These  points  are  important  in  showing,  first,  that  no  good  grounds 
exist  for  the  statements  so  frequently  heard,  that  there  is  as  much 
fertilizing  value  in  the  roots  of  a clover  crop  as  in  the  tops,  and, 
second,  that  as  a green  manure  this  plant  increases  in  value  up  to  the 
time  of  maturity. 

Its  Value  in  Early  Stages  of  Growth. 

The  advantages  to  be  derived  from  the  use  of  this  plant  as  a green 
manure  in  its  early  stages  of  growth  are,  however,  considerable,  and 
in  this  State  it  doubtless  will  find  its  widest  application  for  this  pur- 
pose then,  rather  than  at  maturity.  It  has  already  been  observed  that 
the  gain  to  the  soil  from  green  manuring  with  leguminous  plants, 
consists  in  the  addition  of  organic  vegetable  matter  or  humus-forming 
materials,  the  gradual  decay  of  which  improves  the  physical  character 


19 


of  the  soil,  by  rendering  it  more  retentive  of  moisture  and  plant-food., 
and  the  chemical  character  by  adding  to  it  nitrogen,  an  element  use- 
ful to  those  plants  whose  entire  source, of  which  is  the  soil.  The 
mineral  constituents  contained  in  the  crop  are  derived  entirely  from 
the  soil,  and  hence  represent  no  addition  to  it,  though  their  change  of 
location  and  concentration  in  the  surface  soil  in  a product  which 
rapidly  decays,  contribute  in  no  small  degree  to  the  good  results 
derived  from  green  manuring. 

The  amounts  of  phosphoric  acid  and  potash  contained  in  the  crop 
as  early  as  April  24th,  are  more  than  sufficient  for  an  average  crop  of 
white  potatoes,  sweet  potatoes,  tomatoes  or  the  cereals,  or  equivalent  in 
phosphoric  acid  to  200  pounds  of  S.  C.  rock  superphosphate,  and  in 
potash  to  over  600  pounds  of  kainit.  These  facts  are  interesting  in 
showing  the  demands  of  the  plant  for  these  constituents,  and  suggest 
that  on  lands  of  low  fertility  they  should  be  supplied  in  order  to  insure 
a crop.  Assuming  that  the  entire  amount  of  nitrogen  contained  in  the 
whole  crop  represents  a distinct  gain  to  the  soil,  the  crop  harvested  on 
April  24th  added  103.7  pounds,  an  amount  of  nitrogen  equivalent 
to  that  contained  in  648  pounds  of  nitrate  of  soda,  which  would  cost, 
at  present  prices,  in  quantity,  $15,  or  to  the  amount  contained  in  10 
tons  of  average- quality  manure.  City  manure  costs  this  year  $2.25 
per  ton  delivered  at  consumer’s  depot ; reckoning  phosphoric  acid  at 
4 cents  per  pound,  at  which  price  a available”  can  be  bought  in  S.  C* 
rock  superphosphate,  and  actual  potash  at  4J  cents  per  pound,  at 
which  price  it  can  be  bought  in  the  form  of  muriate,  the  cost  of  the 
nitrogen  in  the  manure  is  $15,  or  the  same  as  the  nitrate  of  soda. 


City  Manure  vs.  Clover  as  a Source  of  Nitrogen. 

The  cost  of  the  nitrogen  in  the  clover  is  represented  by  the  cost  of 
seed  and  labor  of  sowing,  which  need  not  exceed  $2  per  acre.  This 
is  balanced  by  a charge  of  20  cents  per  ton  for  the  labor  of  hauling 
and  applying  the  manure,  or  about  one-half  of  the  usual  estimated 
cost;  the  crop,  therefore,  represents  an  accumulation  of  nitrogen 
worth  $15,  free  of  cost  to  the  farmer. 

The  amount  of  organic  matter  contained  in  the  clover — 2,687 
pounds — is  also  equivalent  to  that  contained  in  ten  tons  of  manure,, 
hence  the  physical  improvement  of  the  soil  may  be  fairly  assumed  to« 
be  quite  as  great  from  the  clover  as  from  the  manure. 


20 


Late  white  potatoes,  sweet  potatoes,  early  tomatoes,  melons,  citrons 
and  corn  are  not,  as  a rule,  planted  or  set  until  early  in  May,  and  the 
growth  of  clover  indicated  in  the  table  may  be  easily  attained  without 
seriously  delaying  the  planting  of  these  crops,  upon  which  city  manure 
is  extensively  used. 


Are  Nitrogen  and  Organic  Matter  Necessary? 

Statistics  gathered  by  the  Station  showed  that  last  year  New  York 
horse  manure  to  the  amount  of  85,000  tons  was  shipped  into  sections 
of  four  counties  in  southern  New  Jersey,  where  these  crops  are  largely 
grown  ; the  nitrogen  in  this  amount  of  manure  cost  the  farmers 
$127,500,  which  sum  probably  does  not  represent  one- third  of  the 
total  expenditure  for  nitrogen  in  the  manure  bought  in  those  counties, 
since  large  quantities  are  carted  and  boated  direct  from  Philadelphia 
and  Camden. 

That  nitrogen  with  the  accompanying  organic  matter  is  believed  to 
be  needed  is,  therefore,  sufficiently  evident,  since  immense  sums  of 
hard  cash  are  paid  for  it;  the  nitrogen  in  the  clover  is  just  as  good, 
and  can  be  had  in  the  clover  at  a nominal  expense  of  cash  and  labor, 
both  very  important  items. 

It  may  be  argued  that  this  nitrogen  will  not  in  all  cases  answer  as 
well  as  that  contained  in  the  manure,  and  that  it  may  not  be  possible 
to  get  sufficient  amounts  by  means  of  green  manures  under  the  system 
of  farming  practiced. 

These  are  legitimate  arguments  but  should  not  have  sufficient  influ- 
ence to  prevent  the  farmer  from  securing  all  that  he  can  in  this  way 
and  supplementing  by  the  more  soluble  forms.  It  may  be,  too,  that 
the  present  system  of  farming  is  not  the  best ; farmers’  profits  in  the 
future,  as  at  present,  must  come  largely  through  reducing  the  cost  of 
production,  which  in  many  cases  necessitates  changes  in  practice. 

The  facts  are  that  nitrogen  is  needed  for  these  crops,  and  that  it  is 
the  most  expensive  of  the  essential  fertilizing  elements,  in  whatever 
form  purchased.  No  other  one  question  is  more  important  to  the 
farmers  of  these  sections  than  the  question  of  a cheap  source  of  nitro- 
gen ; it  will  pay  to  give  it  careful  consideration. 


21 


Its  Value  in  Mixed  Farming. 

The  crop  cut  May  12th  shows  a decided  gain  of  nitrogen,  or  a total 
equivalent  to  that  contained  in  17  tons  of  manure,  and  worth  $25.50 
per  acre.  On  this  date  the  crop  as  a green  manure  perhaps  finds  its 
best  application  farther  north  in  the  State  for  field- corn,  potatoes,, 
orchards,  etc. 

Where  mixed  farming  on  the  extensive  plan  is  practiced,  few 
farmers  find  that  they  have  what  they  regard  as  a sufficient  amount 
of  manure  for  their  purpose,  even  when  proper  care  is  exercised  in 
saving  and  using  their  home  product.  They  also  find  that  buying 
city  manure  under  these  circumstances  is  too  expensive,  and  unless 
fertility  in  some  shape  is  imported  the  productiveness  of  the  soil  i& 
not  increased. 

To  grow  under  the  present  conditions  of  farming  only  such  crops 
as  the  natural  conditions  of  soil  and  season  and  ordinary  methods  of 
culture  will  permit  is  frequently  unprofitable,  and  is  certainly  unpro- 
gressive. 

Crimson  clover  sown  in  corn  takes  well  under  average  seasonal 
conditions ; it  keeps  the  land  occupied  during  fall  and  winter,  and  will, 
as  is  shown,  secure  large  quantities  of  nitrogen  before  the  middle  of 
May,  or  in  time  for  a corn  or  potato  crop.  Upon  land  of  good 
natural  fertility  the  gain  from  green  manuring  alone  is  often  more 
marked  than  upon  the  poorer  soils. 


Its  Value  in  Soil  Improvement. 

The  use  of  the  matured  crop  as  a green  manure  is  especially  appli- 
cable on  lands  naturally  very  poor  or  run  down,  where  the  primary 
object  is  really  to  assist  in  making  soils ; here  the  larger  the  amount 
of  organic  vegetable  matter  added  the  more  rapid  will  be  the  improve- 
ment, though  in  such  cases  mineral  manures  should  be  liberally  used 
in  order  to  get  the  first  crop.  The  average  of  the  matured  crops  on 
May  24th  and  31st  contained  per  acre  200  pounds  of  nitrogen  and 
6,500  pounds  of  organic  matter,  or  equivalent  to  that  contained  in 
20  tons  of  city  manure,  which  would  cost  in  that  form  $30. 

An  admirable  illustration  of  the  advantages  of  this  method  of 
manuring,  both  in  improving  the  physical  character  of  soil  and  in 


22 


furnishing  nitrogen,  is  shown  in  an  experiment  now  in  progress  by 
the  Station. 

A light  sandy  soil  not  previously  cropped,  poor,  both  in  physical 
and  chemical  character,  was  last  spring  dressed  liberally  with  potash 
and  phosphoric  acid  only,  and  seeded  with  the  cow-pea,  a leguminous 
plant ; the  crop  grew  well  without  the  addition  of  nitrogen  or  organic 
matter,  producting  7f  tons  of  green  material  per  acre.  The  crop  was 
turned  under  in  September  and  the  land  seeded  to  rye,  without  the 
addition  of  manure  of  any  kind.  The  rye  this  spring  is  a fine  crop, 
thick,  vigorous  and  strong  in  growth,  better  even  than  on  adjoining 
land  in  a good  state  of  fertility,  dressed  heavily  on  the  preceding 
crop  of  potatoes  with  a high-grade  fertilizer  and  top-dressed  with 
well- rotted  manure. 

The  land  was  not  only  improved  in  its  physical  character,  holding 
together  and  making  a solid  seed-bed,  but  was  also  chemically  im- 
proved by  the  nitrogen  collected  from  the  atmosphere  by  the  crop  of 
cow- peas,  since  the  nitrogen  contained  in  it  was  the  only  source  of  this 
element  available  for  the  rye. 


Sources  of  the  Mineral  Constituents. 

In  this  discussion  the  chemical  improvement  of  the  soil  is  claimed 
in  reference  to  nitrogen  only ; this  gives  rise  to  the  question  as  to  the 
cheapest  source  of  the  mineral  constituents,  phosphoric  acid  and 
potash,  both  for  growing  the  leguminous  plants  and  for  other  crops, 
since  in  most  cases  those  elements  are  also  required  for  both  classes  of 
crops. 

At  the  present  price  of  city  manure,  phosphoric  acid  and  potash  cost 
as  much  as  in  the  best  concentrated  products  containing  them,  viz., 
superphosphates  and  potash  salts.  The  phosphoric  acid  is  certainly 
less  available  in  manure  than  in  superphosphates,  because  in  the 
former  the  organic  matter  must  decay  before  the  plant  can  secure  it. 
The  potash  is  largely  soluble  in  the  manure,  but  a uniform  distribu- 
tion of  it  is  more  difficult,  and  the  expense  of  applying  is  much 
greater  than  when  contained  in  the  concentrated  soluble  forms. 
Where  the  required  nitrogen  and  organic  matter  are  secured  from 
green  manures,  phosphoric  acid  and  potash  can  be  more  economically 
secured  in  these  concentrated  forms  than  in  city  manures.  Where 
green  manures  are  used  for  soil-making,  liberal  dressings  of  both 


23 


phosphoric  acid  and  potash  are  recommended.  The  application  of 
lime  is  also  advisable,  particularly  when  a heavy  crop  is  turned  under, 
both  because  of  the  lime,  and  because  it  is  believed  to  prevent  injury 
to  the  land  consequent  upon  a too  rapid  decay  of  vegetable  matter. 

2. 

AS  A PASTURE. 

The  keeping  of  live  stock  is  an  important  feature  of  the  farming  of 
this  State ; in  this  practice  whether  the  stock  consists  of  dairy  animals, 
young  stock,  sheep  or  hogs,  the  importance  of  a full  supply  of  food, 
in  order  to  maintain  a continuous  growth,  is  recognized.  In  many 
cases  food-supplies  run  low  in  early  spring,  and  food  must  be  bought 
or  the  animals  suffer ; too  often  the  latter  is  the  case.  Crimson  clover 
is  much  earlier  than  red  clover  or  the  grasses,  and  furnishes  an  excel- 
lent early  pasture  for  all  kinds  of  stock,  and  its  use  as  a pasture  per- 
mits of  the  advantages  that  are  derived  when  used  entirely  as  a green 
manure,  though  in  a less  degree.  The  vegetable  matter  and  nitrogen 
oontained  in  the  roots  are  quite  as  much  a direct  gain  to  the  soil  in 
humus-forming  materials  when  used  as  pasture  as  when  used  as 
manure. 


The  Composition  of  Clover  Pasture. 

The  analysis  of  the  plant  at  this  time  shows  it  to  contain  a high 
content  of  water,  in  this  respect  resembling  mangel-wurzels,  beets, 
turnips,  or  cabbage,  though  the  proportions  of  the  food  compounds  in 
it  are  such  as  to  make  it  better  adapted  as  a sole  diet  than  these  crops. 

The  average  composition  on  April  24th,  on  the  basis  of  90  per  cent, 
water,  is  as  follows  : 

POUNDS  PER  HUNDRED  OF 


Water. 

Dry 

Matter. 

Crude 

Fat. 

Crude 

Fiber. 

Ash. 

Carbo- 

hydrates. 

Crude 

Protein. 

Albuminoid 

Protein. 

90.00 

10.00 

0.39 

1.54 

1.12 

2.29 

4.66 

1.84 

The  use  of  the  crop  as  a pasture  is  to  be  recommended,  particularly 
on  dairy  farms,  only  when  it  is  desirable  to  use  the  land  for  corn  or 
other  early  spring  crops,  since  protein,  the  most  valuable  of  the  food 
compounds  derived  entirely  from  the  air,  and  therefore  free  of  expense, 
increases  very  rapidly  as  the  plant  matures,  and  since  its  use  as  a soil- 
ing crop,  or  as  hay,  is  much  more  economical  of  food  than  pasturage. 


24 


Table  5. 


DATE. 

POUNDS  PER  ACRE  OF  FOOD  CONSTITU- 
ENTS CONTAINED  IN  TOPS. 

POUNDS  OF  PLANT-FOOD  RE- 
MAINING IN  SOIL  FROM  ROOTS. 

Fat. 

Fiber. 

| 

j Protein. 

j Carbohydrates 

j Ash. 

Organic  Matter. 

j Nitrogen. 

Phosphoric  Acid. 

j Potash. 

April  24 

79.3 

315.1 

466.6 

950.6 

227.6 

875.3 

29.1 

8.6 

18.0 

Table  5 shows  the  average  amounts  of  food  constituents  contained 
per  acre  in  the  crops  used  in  the  experiment,  as  well  as  the  plant-food 
remaining  in  the  roots.  The  whole  top  is  included  here,  since  in 
pasturing  the  stubble  is  an  insignificant  item  and  also  because  it  was 
impossible  at  this  stage  of  growth  to  draw  the  line  sharply  between 
stubble  and  tops. 

Its  Value  as  Early  Pasture. 

There  is  no  satisfactory  method  of  valuing  exactly  food  constitu- 
ents in  products  of  this  kind,  and  no  attempt  will  be  made  to  do  so  ; 
this,  however,  does  not  prevent  the  drawing  of  fair  comparisons  as 
to  the  value  of  the  crop. 

In  applying  the  digestion  co-efficients  of  pasture  grass  we  find  the 
following  amounts  of  digestible  food  per  acre,  viz.,  fat,  50  pounds ; 
protein,  327  pounds,  and  carbohydrates,  including  fiber,  933  pounds, 
a total  of  1,310  pounds. 

The  proportion  of  the  different  food  compounds  is  good  so  far  as 
nutrition  is  concerned,  though  its  use  exclusively  as  pasture  may  not 
be  the  most  economical ; so  used,  however,  we  find  that  this  amount 
will  be  sufficient  to  maintain  12  dairy  cows  in  full  flow  of  milk  at 
least  for  one  week. 

A dairy  farmer  who  this  year  used  the  crop  as  an  early  pasture 
reports  that  he  is  highly  pleased  with  the  practical  results  secured, 
and  that  he  regards  the  plant  as  very  valuable  for  this  purpose  in 
dairy  districts.  He  began  using  it  April  15th  and  the  effect  was 
immediately  apparent  in  an  increased  flow  of  milk. 

Farmers  must  determine  for  themselves  what  the  amount  of  food 


25 


here  shown  means  for  them,  whether  used  by  cows,  sheep,  horses  or 
pigs,  at  a season  when  there  is  frequently  a shortage  of  food. 

Food  furnished  by  the  farm  at  this  time  has  a greater  value  than 
at  other  seasons,  because  it  is  the  exception  rather  than  the  rule  for 
farmers  who  are  not  exclusively  in  the  dairy  business  to  buy  feeds. 
Moreover,  early  pasture  as  is  thus  afforded  will  diminish  the  injury 
to  regular  pastures  from  too  early  use,  which  is  frequently  serious, 
owing  to  a lack  of  other  food.  Farmers  should  remember,  too,  that 
protein,  the  basis  of  which  is  nitrogen,  is  the  most  expensive  con- 
stituent of  feeds,  and  the  one  which  is  most  liable  to  be  deficient  in 
the  ration,  and  must,  therefore,  be  purchased.  In  the  clover  it  is 
furnished  free  of  charge. 

The  residue  contained  in  the  roots  only  of  the  crop  is  shown  to  be 
875.3  pounds  of  organic  matter,  containing  29  pounds  of  nitrogen,  or 
an  equivalent  of  3 tons  of  city  manure.  At  least  75  per  cent,  of  the 
nitrogen  contained  in  the  clover  eaten  should  be  found  in  the  manure. 
If  this  is  all  returned  to  the  land,  it  is  equivalent  in  nitrogen  to  that 
contained  in  5J  tons  of  average  manure,  a total  of  8J  tons,  or  quite 
sufficient  nitrogen  for  a corn  crop.  Thus,  even  when  used  as  an  early 
pasture,  this  crop  represents  a very  considerable  gain  to  the  land  in 
the  expensive  element,  nitrogen. 


3. 

AS  A SOILING  CROP. 

The  analyses  of  the  different  samples  of  green  clover  are  shown  in 
Table  6 

Table  6. 


Station  Number. 

DATE  OF  SAMPLING. 

POUNDS  PER  HUNDRED  OF 

0> 

o! 

£ 

Dry  Matter. 

Crude  Fat. 

Crude  Fiber. 

Crude  Ash. 

Crude 

Protein. 

Carbo- 

hydrates. 

Albuminoid 

Protein. 

827 

May  12 

90.31 

9.69 

0.38 

1.60 

0.99 

2.20 

4.53 

1.59 

828 

May  12.. 

88.03 

11.97 

0.47 

1.96 

1.42 

2.86 

5.26 

2.01 

Average 

89.17 

10.83 

0.43 

1.78 

1.21 

2.53 

4.90 

1.80 

831 

May  24 

84.76 

15.24 

0.51 

4.41 

1.21 

2.82 

6.29 

1.99 

834 

May  24 

83.70 

16.30 

0.55 

4.32 

1.40 

3.18 

6.85 

2.18 

Average 

84.23 

15.77 

0.53 

4.37 

1.31 

3.00 

6.57 

2.09 

837 

May  31 

83.26 

16.74 

0.53 

4 78 

1.47 

2.95 

7.01 

2.13 

26 


The  samples  taken  on  May  12th  still  show  a high  content  of  water, 
in  composition  not  differing  widely  in  any  respect  from  those  samples 
taken  April  24th. 

The  samples  representing  fall  bloom  on  May  24th,  and  the  fully 
matured  plant  on  May  31st,  show  a much  higher  content  of  dry  mat- 
ter, though  still  much  less  than  is  contained  in  other  green  forage 
crops.  The  samples  at  this  time  also  show  a much  higher  percentage 
of  crude  fiber  than  on  the  earlier  dates. 

Table  7 shows  the  amount  of  food  constituents,  both  total  and 
digestible,  contained  in  the  crops  obtained  from  one  acre,  as  well  as 
the  residue  of  plant-food  contained  in  roots  and  stubble. 


Table  7. 


POUNDS  OF  FOOD  PER  ACRE. 

POUNDS  OF  PLANT-FOOD 
REMAINING  FROM  STUBBLE 
AND  ROOTS. 

'DATE. 

j Fat. 

| Fiber. 

1 

I 

a 

*5 

1 s 

Oh 

Carbo- 

hydrates. 

4 

< 

Organic 

Matter. 

Nitrogen. 

I Phosphoric 
j Acid. 

Potash. 

May  12 

132.8 

561.3 

795.6 

1,548.1 

377.0 

1,406.2 

41.1 

11.4 

25.9 

May  24 

168  4 

1,376.4 

945.3 

2,066.4 

410.8 

1,406.2 

37.9 

10.1 

14.2 

May  31 

200.9 

1,874.5 

1,121.9 

2,660.7 

558.9 

1,200.2 

32.8 

9.4 

26.1 

Average 

167.4 

1,270.8 

915.2 

2,091.7 

448.9 

1,337.5 

37.3 

10.3 

22.1 

■Digestible 
food  per  acre. 

80.0 

610.0 

658  0 

1,486.0 

1 

In  the  use  of  forage  crops,  cutting  begins  as  early  as  a good  yield 
can  be  secured,  and  continues  as  long  as  the  crop  is  suitable  for  the 
purpose;  in  studying  the  yields,  therefore,  the  average  of  the  thr*e 
cuttings  will  be  taken  as  the  basis  for  calculations. 

The  digestion  co-efficients  determined  for  crimson  clover  hay  at  the 
North  Carolina  Experiment  Station,  and  reported  in  their  Bulletin 
87d,  were  used  to  obtain  the  amounts  of  digestible  food  shown  in 
the  table.  The  clover  in  the  earlier  stages  of  growth,  as  represented 
by  the  samples,  is  too  watery  to  give  the  best  satisfaction  as  an  exclu- 
sive feed,  though  in  actual  practice  the  forage  would  be  much  drier 


27 


than  is  indicated  by  the  analysis.  In  the  sampling  no  loss  of  water 
occurred  between  field  and  laboratory,  in  practice  a considerable  dry- 
ing is  unavoidable,  even  when  fed  as  soon  as  possible  after  cutting. 

Its  Economical  Use. 

The  highly-nitrogenous  character  of  the  dry  matter  also  indicates 
that  it  could  be  more  economically  used  with  cornmeal,  which,  in 
composition,  is  the  reverse  of  the  clover,  viz.,  highly  carbonaceous. 
Still  excellent  results,  as  in  the  case  of  pasturage,  have  been  derived 
when  it  forms  the  entire  ration.  If  so  used  the  average  amount  of 
digestible  food  obtained  per  acre,  on  the  basis  of  1 5.4  pounds  of 
digestible  organic  matter  per  1,000  pounds  live  weight,  is  sufficient  to 
feed  10  cows  in  full  flow  of  milk  for  20  days,  the  time  during  which, 
in  average  seasons,  the  product  is  suitable  for  the  purpose. 

If  not  used  exclusively,  it  should  be  the  aim  of  the  farmer  to  make 
the  clover  furnish  the  bulk  of  the  protein,  and  a ration  made  up  of 
from  50  to  75  pounds  of  clover,  depending  upon  its  content  of  water, 
and  8 pounds  of  cornmeal,  is  suggested.  On  this  basis  the  number 
of  animals  that  could  be  fed  for  the  given  time  would  be  nearly 
doubled,  because  the  carbohydrates  furnished  by  the  cornmeal  permits 
a more  economical  use  of  the  clover. 

Its  Value. 

As  stated  in  reference  to  pasturage,  it  is  a difficult  matter  to  fix  a 
value  on  products  of  this  kind  in  dollars  and  cents  that  would  be 
applicable  in  all  cases.  It  is,  however,  entirely  legitimate  in  investi- 
gations of  this  kind  to  give  as  correct  an  idea  as  possible  of  the 
probable  value. 

Farmers  do  have  very  positive  knowledge  as  to  the  value  of  well- 
cured  red  clover  hay ; they  know  that  it  is  an  excellent  feed  ; it  is  so 
because  of  the  kind  and  proportion  of  the  digestible  constituents  con- 
tained in  it. 

The  analyses  of  crimson  clover  hay  made  at  this  Station,  and  pub- 
lished on  page  142  of  the  Annual  Report  for  1892,  showed  that  a ton 
contained  83.6  pounds  more  of  digestible  matter  than  red  clover,  and 
that  over  66  per  cent,  of  this  increase  consisted  of  the  most  valuable 


28 


compound,  protein.  On  the  same  basis  of  water  content,  the  yield  per 
acre  of  dry  matter  here  indicated  is  equivalent  to  2 66  tons  of  hay. 

The  increased  labor  involved  in  using  the  clover  as  a soiling  crop 
is  somewhat  greater  than  would  be  the  case  if  the  crop  were  made 
into  hay,  though  this  increased  cost  of  food  is  probably  balanced  by 
the  better  quality  of  the  product,  the  dry  matter  of  the  green  forage 
showing  a higher  percentage  of  protein  and  lower  percentage  of  crude 
fiber  than  the  hay. 

At  present  prices  of  feeds  a good  crop  of  mature  crimson  clover 
should  be  worth  for  forage  at  least  $25  per  acre.  In  order  to  pro- 
vide an  unbroken  succession  of  forage  crops  for  the  dairy,  crimson 
clover  fits  in  nicely  between  rye  and  red  clover,  two  or  three  acres 
being  sufficient  for  a medium-sized  dairy.  If  more  is  grown  than  is 
needed  for  forage,  it  is  suitable  for  preserving  as  ensilage,  and  it  also 
makes  an  excellent  hay,  the  chief  objection  here  being  that  it  matures 
too  early  for  good  hay  weather. 

That  this  clover  is  appreciated  as  a soiling  crop  is  well  illustrated 
by  the  following  letter  to  the  Director,  dated  May  17th,  1891,  from 
Mr.  I.  W.  Nicholson,  a prominent  and  successful  dairyman  of  Cam- 
den county  : 

“As  you  are  interested  in  the  introduction  of  crimson  clover,  I 
would  like  you  to  see  a piece  I am  now  soiling  to  my  stock.  You 
would  see  what  the  possibilities  are  on  a rather  light  soil,  without  any 
extra  labor. 

“ I am  prepared  to  say  I think  very  highly  of  this  clover  for  soil- 
ing. It  is  an  early  crop,  which  is  eaten  by  the  stock  with  great 
avidity.  I had  a neighbor  who  sowed  it  with  corn  the  last  time  of 
tilling,  and  had  upon  7 acres  about  four  weeks’  pasture  for  a herd  of 
25  cows  this  spring,  before  plowing  and  planting  in  corn.” 


The  Value  of  the  Manure  and  Residue  in  Roots. 

When  used  as  a soiling  crop  the  organic  matter  and  nitrogen 
remaining  in  the  soil  from  stubble  and  roots  are  equivalent  to  the 
amounts  furnished  by  about  four  tons  of  city  manure,  or  but  little  in 
excess  of  that  remaining  when  the  crop  is  used  as  a pasture.  The 
amount  remaining  in  the  manure  from  the  crop  fed  on  the  assumption 
that  25  per  cent,  of  the  nitrogen  is  utilized  by  the  animals,  is  much 
greater,  or  equivalent  to  11}  tons  of  city  manure,  a total  of  15}  tons 
for  the  whole  crop. 


29 


The  nitrogen  assumed  to  be  utilized  by  the  animals  when  the  tops 
are  used  as  feed,  is  35  pounds,  or  equivalent  to  that  contained  in  3^ 
tons  of  manure,  which  would  cost  $5.25,  hence,  when  the  manure  is 
properly  saved  and  applied,  the  manurial  value  of  the  crop  is  not 
materially  reduced.  Used  as  a manure  only,  the  average  crop  per 
acre  is  worth  $25.50;  when  used  as  a feed  the  value  is  increased  to 
$45  25. 

This  illustrates  very  clearly  the  wastefulness  of  using  the  matured 
crop  solely  as  a green  manure,  wherever  it  is  possible  to  use  it  as  a 
feed. 

These  experiments  emphasize  the  points  stated  in  the  beginning  as 
already  well  established  for  crimson  clover,  and  also  suggest  further 
important  advantages  from  its  proper  management  and  use.  These 
are  summarized  as  follows : 


Summary. 

I.  Crimson  clover  is  an  annual  plant,  hardy  for  the  whole  State  ; it 
has  been  successfully  grown  in  every  county  from  Cape  May  to  Sussex. 
It  is  adapted  for  a wide  variety  of  conditions,  both  in  reference  to 
character  of  soil,  and  method  and  time  of  seeding,  though  not  as  a 
substitute  for  red  clover. 

II.  Its  best  use  is  probably  derived  when  seeded  in  the  summer  or 
fall  for  an  early  spring  crop,  either  for  pasture  forage  or  green  manure. 
The  time  of  seeding  may  extend  from  July  15th  to  September  15th, 
depending  upon  the  character  of  the  season  and  the  seed-bed ; good 
results  have  been  secured  when  seeded  later  than  September  15th. 

The  value  of  a spring  seeding  for  a summer  crop,  either  upon  raw 
ground  or  with  oats,  has  not  been  thoroughly  tested  in  the  State ; 
experiments  are  now  in  progress  here  to  study  this  point. 

It  is  the  experience  of  growers  that  the  seed  takes  better  when 
lightly  covered.  Failures  to  secure  a good  stand  from  good  seed  are 
reported  as  due  chiefly  to  hot,  dry  weather  after  the  sprouting  of  the 
seed,  and  to  heavy  rains  immediately  after  seeding. 

III.  Crimson  clover  may  be  seeded  in  [orchards,  berry  patches, 
corn,  tomatoes,  etc.,  and  upon  raw  ground  following  after  potatoes, 
tomatoes,  melons  or  other  crops  harvested  before  September.  It  is 
not  adapted  for  seeding  with  wheat  or  rye. 


30 


The  amount  of  seed  may  range  within  wide  limits — 8 to  16  pounds- 
per  acre ; larger  amounts  are  usually  required  when  sown  with  other 
crops,  and  smaller  amounts  when  sown  upon  raw  ground  or  in 
orchards.  Twelve  pounds  per  acre  will  doubtless  be  found  to  be 
sufficient. 

No  failures  to  stand  the  winter  have  been  reported  when  good,, 
American- grown  seed  was  used.  It  is  more  hardy  than  red  clover. 
Foreign  seed  has  not  proved  satisfactory.  It  contains  as  impurities- 
weed  seed  and  less  hardy  varieties  of  this  clover.  The  seed  is  not  as 
yet  produced  in  any  considerable  quantity  in  this  State.  That  used> 
in  our  experiments  was  raised  in  Delaware,  where  the  business  of  seed- 
growing is  assuming  considerable  proportions  and  is  reported  to  be 
profitable. 

TV.  This  crop,  in  common  with  all  other  farm  crops,  requires  good 
soils  for  its  best  development,  though  it  is  well  adapted  for  light 
lands,  catching  readily  and  growing  well  where  red  clover  will  not 
thrive,  and  also  making  use  of  the  mineral  constituents  not  available 
to  the  cereals. 

The  average  yield  secured  from  a full  stand  on  May  24th,  and 
representing  soils  of  a different  character,  was  15.75  tons  of  green 
clover  per  acre,  or  equivalent  to  2.7  tons  of  dry  hay.  It  is  believed' 
that  this  fairly  represents  the  yield  that  may  be  secured  under  favor- 
able conditions,  though  very  much  larger  yields  have  been  reported. 

V.  Regarded  as  a green  manure,  particularly  as  furnishing  nitrogen 
derived  from  the  air,  this  crop  possesses  many  advantages  due  to  its* 
time  of  growth  and  development. 

A crop  six  inches  high  April  24th,  showed  an  accumulation  of 
nitrogen  in  the  whole  plant  at  the  rate  of  104  pounds  per  acre,  an 
amount  equivalent  to  that  contained  in  ten  tons  of  city  manure  or  648 
pounds  of  nitrate  of  soda,  costing  $15. 

The  crop  secured  at  this  date  may  be  utilized  for  early  vegetables^ 
potatoes,  melons,  etc.,  crops  usually  benefited  by  liberal  applications 
of  nitrogenous  manures. 

On  May  12th,  a crop  averaging  13  inches  high,  which  in  many 
sections  can  be  utilized  as  a manure  for  late  potatoes,  corn,  and  orch- 
ards, contained  nitrogen  at  the  rate  of  168  pounds  per  acre,  worth 
$25.50.  The  plant  at  maturity  showed  nitrogen  at  the  rate  of  200 


31 


pounds  per  acre,  or  an  amount  equivalent  to  that  contained  in  20  tons 
of  city  manure,  which  would  cost  in  that  form  $30. 

Good  crops  of  this  clover  can  be  obtained  on  naturally- poor  or 
worn-out  lands  when  fertilized  with  the  mineral  constituents  only ; 
these  soils  are  rapidly  improved  by  the  addition  of  the  nitrogen  and 
accompanying  organic  matter  contained  in  the  crop. 

VI.  This  plant  provides  a good  pasture  before  other  crops  are 
available.  An  early  pasture  is  not  only  valuable  for  the  food  con- 
tained in  it,  but  also  because  it  helps  to  insure  proper  feeding  and  to 
prevent  too  early  use  of  other  and  later  pastures.  It  was  pastured 
this  year  in  central  New  Jersey  as  early  as  April  10th.  The  crop 
when  six  inches  high  contained  over  1,300  pounds  of  digestible  food 
per  acre,  sufficient  to  properly  nourish  twelve  cows  for  one  week. 

The  fertilizing  value  per  acre  of  the  residue  in  the  roots,  is  equiva- 
lent in  nitrogen  and  organic  matter  to  that  contained  in  three  tons  of 
city  manure. 

VII.  Crimson  clover  in  average  seasons  provides  a soiling  crop 
excellent  both  in  yield  and  quality  of  product ; it  is  satisfactory  for 
the  purpose  for  about  twenty  days,  and  at  a time  when  other  forage 
crops  are  not  abundant. 

On  the  basis  of  the  yield  of  digestible  food  secured  in  the  experi- 
ments— 2,934  pounds  per  acre — it  will  provide  sufficient  for  ten  cows 
in  full  flow  of  milk  for  twenty  days,  worth  at  present  prices  of  feed, 
at  least,  $25  per  acre. 

The  composition  and  digestibility  of  this  plant  show  it  to  be 
superior  to  red  clover,  and  when  seasons  are  favorable  for  early  hay- 
making, the  product  thus  secured  is  not  excelled  by  any  of  our  farm 
crops  as  a feed  for  all  purposes. 

The  advantages  derived  from  the  crop  when  used  solely  as  a green 
manure  are  but  slightly  reduced  when  the  crop  is  used  for  food,  pro- 
vided the  resulting  manure  is  properly  saved  and  applied. 

EDWARD  B.  VOORHEES, 

Director. 

New  Brunswick,  N.  J.,  June  11th,  1894. 


Wl  r /t?  5 


THE  USE  OF  KOCH’S  LYMPH  IN  THE  DIAGNOSIS  OF 
TUBERCULOSIS  OF  CATTLE. 


NEW  JERSEY 

Agricultural  College 

Experiment  Station 


101 


NEW  JERSEY  AGRICULTURAL  COLLEGE  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


BOARD  OF  CONTROL. 


The  Board  of  Trustees  of  Rutgers  College  in  New  Jersey. 


EXECUTIVE  COMMITTEE  OF  THE  BOARD. 

AUSTIN  SCOTT,  Ph.D.,  LL.D.,  President  of  Rutgers  College,  Chairman. 
Hon.  GEORGE  C.  LUDLOW,  HENRY  R.  BALDWIN,  M.D.,  LL.D. 

Hon.  HENRY  W.  BOOKSTAVER,  LL.D.,  JAMES  NEILSON,  Esq. 


STAFF  OF  THE  STATION. 

AUSTIN  SCOTT,  Ph.D.,  LL.D.,  Director. 

Professor  JULIUS  NELSON,  Ph.D.,  Biologist. 

Professor  BYRON  D.  HALSTED,  Sc.D.,  Botanist  and  Horticulturist. 
Professor  JOHN  B.  SMITH,  Sc.D.,  Entomologist. 

ELISHA  A.  JONES,  B.S.,  Superintendent  of  College  Farm. 

IRVING  S.  UPSON,  A.M.,  Disbursing  Clerk  and  Librarian. 
CHARLES  A.  POULSON,  Mailing  Assistant. 

LEONORA  E.  BUR  WELL,  Clerk  to  the  Director. 

AUGUSTA  E.  MESKE,  Stenographer  and  Typewriter. 


NEW  JERSEY 


Agricultural  College  Experiment  Station. 
BULLETIN  101. 

JULY  2,  1894. 


The  Use  of  Koch’s  Lymph  in  the  Diagnosis  of 
Tuberculosis  of  Cattle. 


BY  JULIUS  NELSON,  BIOLOGIST. 


§ 1.  Brief  Record  of  Operations  at  the  College  Farm. 

Early  in  June,  1893,  I was  asked  to  examine,  with  the  microscope, 
the  milk  of  a Holstein  cow,  Tryntje  von  Hollingen  by  name,  a mem- 
ber of  the  College  farm  herd.  This  cow  had  been  suspected  of  being 
tuberculous,  although  at  this  time  she  was  in  fair  condition,  coughed 
only  occasionally,  but  was  somewhat  languid  and  the  right  hind  quar- 
ter of  her  udder  presented  the  symptoms  of  garget — being  hard  and 
swollen. 

A thorough  and  extended  microscopical  study  of  her  milk  by  num- 
erous methods  failed  to  give  me  any  evidence  of  the  presence  of  the 
germ  of  tuberculosis.  The  milk  was  of  excellent  quality. 

Finally  it  was  decided  to  test  her  by  the  Koch  test,  which  consists 
in  the  hypodermic  injection  of  a 10  per  cent,  solution  of  Koch’s  lymph 
(or  tuberculin)  in  a 1 per  cent,  solution  of  carbolic  acid.  Experience 
had  abundantly  proven  to  previous  observers  that  if  this  is  done  on  a 
healthy  cow  no  change  of  her  temperature  results,  but  if  she  have 
tuberculosis  in  the  slightest  degree  there  is  a fever  reaction,  the  tem- 
perature rises  in  from  six  to  twelve  hours  after  injection  and  remains 
up  for  a number  of  hours  before  falling  back  again  to  the  normal. 


4 


It  is  well  known  to  veterinarians  that  the  normal  temperature  of  a 
cow  in  the  early  morning  is  lowest,  so  that  if  the  injection  be  made  in 
the  evening  the  reaction,  if  any,  will  occur  when  the  temperature  should 
be  lower  than  the  initial  temperature  observed  in  the  experiment. 
When  it  is  found  that  the  morning  temperature,  after  inoculation 
with  tuberculin  in  the  evening,  is  higher  than  the  evening  tempera- 
ture, a reaction  is  at  once  predicated  and  this  reaction  is  all  the  more 
certain  in  proportion  to  the  absolute  rise.  So  certain  is  it  that  a cow 
which  shows  a reaction  is  tuberculous  that  the  State  would  risk  little 
if  any  money,  should  it  promise  to  pay  for  every  cow  showing  reaction 
which  on  being  killed  failed  to  show  the  presence  of  tuberculosis. 

Accordingly,  on  the  evening  of  July  24th  Tryntje  was  injected  with 
80  minims  of  tuberculin  solution — a large  dose,  determined  by  the 
large  size  of  the  cow.  The  temperature  record  observed  was  as 
follows : 


8:00 

10:00 

12:30 

3:00 

5:00 

7:15 

10:00 

11:30 

p.  m. 

p.  m. 

a.  m. 

a.  m. 

a.  m. 

a.  m. 

a.  in. 

a.  m. 

103  35°  F. 

103.1 

103.2 

102.2 

102.2 

101.2 

101.5 

102 

It  is  plain  that  the  above  record  is  not  a reaction,  and  I so  reported  ; 
but  in  the  light  of  subsequent  experiments,  it  now  seems  possible 
that  a reaction  took  place. 

August  11th.  A cow  from  the  farm,  on  being  slaughtered,  showed 
abscesses  in  lungs  and  near  kidneys,  which,  on  microscopic  examina- 
tion, showed  the  presence  of  the  germs  of  tuberculosis.  At  this  date 
the  milk  from  the  gargety  quarter  of  Tryntje’s  udder  suddenly 
changed  for  the  worse ; it  became  watery,  coagulated  and  had  little 
fat  or  cream  content.  Microscopic  examination  showed  it  to  be  full 
of  decomposing  cells  and  various  bacteria,  among  which  the  tubercle 
germ  was  found  to  be  present.  The  cow  was  then  isolated  from  the 
other  members  of  the  herd,  and  a continued  observation  made  of  her 
milk,  which  was  thrown  away  so  far  as  it  was  not  used  in  experi- 
ments. 

October  29th  a normal,  apparently  healthy,  calf  was  born  to 
Tryntje.  This  was  isolated  and  fed  by  milk  from  the  three  teats 
which  produced  milk  of  good  quality.  The  cow  had  been  dry  for 
several  weeks  before  calving.  The  right  hind  teat  continued  to  give 
a small  amount  of  abnormal  milk.  November  9th  the  calf  was 
killed  and  specimens  taken  of  its  different  organs  for  microscopic 
examination  and  the  rest  of  the  carcass  was  buried,  although  to  the 
eye  it  presented  a wholesome  appearance.  At  this  time  it  was  noticed 


5 


that  the  milk  of  the  right  front  quarter  of  Tryntje’s  udder  was  also 
becoming  abnormal.  Experiments  were  continued,  and  I was  greatly 
interested  in  studying  certain  physico- chemical  reactions  which  I 
supposed  might  possibly  be  used  in  determining  whether  the  milk  of 
a cow  is  affected  by  tubercle  bacilli  or  not,  when  the  news  came, 
November  30th,  that  Tryntje  was  dead. 

The  autopsy  was  held  that  afternoon,  in  a field  distant  from  the 
barn,  and  it  showed  clearly  that  death  was  the  result  of  tuberculosis. 
The  muscles  seemed  to  be  the  only  tissues  not  yet  converted  into 
tuberculous  masses,  so  extreme  was  the  invasion  of  this  mysterious 
and  irresistible  disease.  After  the  birth  of  the  calf,  the  failure  of 
health  of  the  mother  was  rapid  ; the  change  during  the  last  week  was 
so  great  that  whereas  a few  days  before,  the  cow  seemed  likely  to  live 
for  many  months,  after  death  (I  meanwhile  had  not  seen  her)  she 
presented  an  appearance  of  emaciation  which,  had  I seen  before, 
would  have  determined  her  immediate  slaughter. 

Meanwhile,  the  farm  management  had  called  in  Dr.  E.  L.  Loblein, 
veterinary  surgeon,  to  examine  the  herd.  Two  cows  presented  unmis- 
takable signs  of  tuberculosis,  and  it  was  determined  to  test  Koch’s 
lymph  again.  November  8th,  Tryntje’s  calf  was  injected  with  20 
minims  tuberculin,  and  Maria  Starr,  a Holstein,  received  50  minims, 
the  temperature  record  being  as  follows  for  the  calf : 


6:00 

8:45 

2:00 

5:00 

7:15 

12:00 

4:00 

p.  m. 

p.  m. 

a.  m. 

a.  m. 

a.  m. 

m. 

p.  m. 

102.6  (before  injection). 

102.8 

103.2 

103.2 

104 

104.8 

103.6 

102  (immediately  after). 

This  appeared  like  a reaction,  although  the  normal  temperature  of 
young  calves  is  much  higher  than  of  cows,  and  is  readily  disturbed, 
so  there  is  some  doubt.  The  record  for  the  cow  was : 


6:30 

8:55 

2:15 

5:00 

7:30 

12:00 

4:00 

p.  m. 

p.  m. 

a.  m. 

a.  m. 

a.  m. 

m. 

p.  m. 

102.5  (before). 

102.6  (after). 

103.4 

106.3 

106.3 

105.8 

103 

103.3 

This  is  a decided  reaction. 

A week  later,  the  other  cow,  Marion  Perkins,  a native,  was  injected 
with  40  minims  and  gave  this  record  : 


5:00 

8:00 

2:00 

5:00 

8:00 

12:00 

3:30 

6:00 

8:00 

p.  m. 

P.  ID. 

a.  m. 

a.  m. 

a.  m. 

m. 

p.  m. 

p.  m. 

p.  m. 

102.4 

103.4 

105 

104.4 

105.8 

106 

105 

105.8 

105.6 

6 


Next  morning  at  6 A.  M,,  101.8,  or  more  than  two  and  a half 
degrees  (2.5°)  lower  than  on  the  previous  morning,  when  the  tuberculin 
was  acting  ; hence,  an  evident  reaction.  After  the  death  of  Tryntje, 
the  slaughter  of  these  two  cows,  which  had  been  isolated  as  soon  as 
the  reaction  was  shown,  was  decided  upon,  but  the  desire  to  continue 
certain  researches  upon  the  milk  of  Maria  Starr  delayed  the  execution. 
Her  milk  was  fed  to  a calf  born  to  Fillpail  November  8th  (the 
mother  at  that  time  not  suspected,  but  later  proved  to  be  tuberculous). 
This  calf  was  injected  with  15  minims  lymph  December  11th,  and 
gave  this  record  : 


5:30 

9:00 

2:00 

5:00 

9:00 

12:00 

4:00 

8:15 

10:00 

p.  m. 

p.  m. 

a.  m. 

a.  m. 

a.  m. 

m. 

p.  m. 

p.  m. 

a.  m. 

103 

101.8 

104.2 

104.6 

104 

104.5 

103  6 

104 

103.6 

While  this  appeared  to  be  a reaction,  the  fact  of  the  youth  of  the 
creature  caused  a doubt  to  remain.  Accordingly,  on  the  night  of 
December  15th,  Mr.  E.  A.  Jones,  the  College  Farm  Superintendent, 
who  had  taken  the  above  record,  observed,  at  my  request,  the  tem- 
perature of  the  calf  when  it  was  not  under  the  influence  of  tubercu- 
lin, with  the  following  results : 

6:00  p.  m.  10:00  p.  m.  2:00  a.  m.  5:30  a.  m. 

101.8  102  101.6  101.8 

A comparison  with  the  corresponding  hours  of  December  11th,  after 
injection,  shows  an  evident  reaction.  This  calf  was  butchered  January 
15th ; it  was  in  prime  condition,  without  a flaw  to  the  eye,  neverthe- 
less specimens  of  various  organs  were  taken  and  prepared  for  micro- 
scopic examination.  December  23d,  the  two  cows  whose  records  we 
have  presented,  were  killed  and  autopsied  near  the  grave  of  Tryntje, 
with  the  following  results : 

In  the  case  of  Maria  Starr  (66),  the  membrane  lining  the  chest 
walls  was  studded  with  tubercles  (pearl  disease),  the  bronchial  glands 
were  enlarged  with  tubercles,  the  lungs  were  filled  with  large  cheesy 
bunches,  the  liver  was  covered  with  similar  tubercles,  and  the  caul, 
mesenteries,  and  intestines  showed  small  scattered  tubercles  or  pimples, 
known  as  miliary  tubercles. 

In  the  case  of  Marion  Perkins  (73),  the  left  lung  was  nearly  solid 
and  the  right  partly  invaded  by  tubercles ; the  bronchial  and  medias- 
tinal glands  were  enlarged  and  converted  into  a bright-yellow  cheesy 
material.  She  was  evidently  not  so  tuberculous  as  the  former  case. 


7 


but  leaving  Tryntje  out  of  comparison,  would  be  still  considered  as  in 
an  advanced  stage  of  tuberculosis. 

The  results  of  these  autopsies  determined  the  farnTmanagement  on 
a thorough  inspection  of  the  herd.  Dr.  Loblein  examined  the  herd, 
keeping  his  results  to  himself  temporarily,  and  I injected  the  herd 
with  tuberculin,  Mr.  Jones  taking  the  temperatures.  Sufficient  tuber- 
culin (thirty  dollars’  worth,  or  240  minims,  equals  15  cubic  centime- 
ters) was  secured,  and  on  the  29th  day  of  December,  nineteen  cows, 
and  January  2d,  sixteen  others  were  injected,  the  records  of  which 
will  be  found  in  the  tables  accompanying  this  report.  Two  heifers 
and  a bull  were  left  uninjected,  the  lymph  having  been  exhausted. 
The  bull  was  killed  without  injection,  but  found  to  be  healthy.  The 
two  heifers  were  injected  by  Dr.  Loblein  at  a later  date.  (See  Tables. 
Nos.  7-43.) 

The  general  results  may  be  summarized  as  follows : Nine  cows  are 
apparently  sound,  four  are  doubtfully  sound;  two  are  doubtfully 
tuberculous,  six  are  probably  tuberculous,  while  eighteen  may  be 
safely  killed  as  tuberculous. 

The  veterinarian’s  inspection  showed  fifteen  cows  as  “ suspicious  ” 
cases,  varying  from  “ very  suspicious  ” to  “ slightly  suspicious.” 
When  these  suspicious  cases  were  compared  with  the  classification 
under  the  Koch  test  it  was  found  that  two  cases  came  under  the 
“ apparently  sound  ” group,  one  under  the  “ doubtfully  tuberculous  ” 
group,  two  under  the  “ probably  tuberculous  ” group  and  eight  under 
the  “ certainly  tuberculous”  group.  The  other  eight  tuberculous 
animals  were  pronounced  O K. 

The  cows  were  killed  in  the  order  of  their  certainty  of  reaction, 
and  every  member  of  the  certainly- tuberculous  and  probably- tubercu- 
lous groups  was  seen  to  be  decidedly  tuberculous,  except  two  cases  in 
the  “ probable”  class,  about  which  there  is  doubt  until  the  micro- 
scopic evidence  is  in. 

Thus  there  has  been  a thorough  weeding  out  of  the  tuberculous 
cattle,  which,  but  for  the  use  of  the  Koch  test,  would  have  been  im- 
possible. Every  new  cow  now  added  to  the  herd  is  first  tested  by 
injection,  and  she  is  purchased  only  when  her  temperature  record  is 
unaffected  by  the  injection.  The  evidences  that  such  cows  are  sound 
are  discussed  in  a later  section  of  this  report. 

The  stables  and  quarters  which  the  College  herd  has  used  have 
been  thoroughly  cleaned  and  disinfected,  and  the  Koch  test  will  be 
used  from  time  to  time  in  the  future  to  detect  any  case  of  tuberculosis 


8 


arising  in  the  herd  in  its  incipiencv.  In  this  way  the  herd  can  be 
kept  clean  and  reliable.  The  reason  for  all  this  care  and  expense 
will  appear  evident  to  one  who  considers  the  points  presented  in  the 
next  section. 


TABULATION  OF  RESULTS  OF  DIAGNOSIS  BY  KOCH  TEST  COMPARED  WITH 
DIAGNOSIS  BY  PHYSICAL  EXAMINATION. 


Diagnosis  by  Koch’s  Lymph. 


Certainly  tuberculous. 
Probably  “ 

Doubtfully  “ 

“ sound 

Probably  “ 

Evidently  “ 


18 

6 

2 

2 

2 

9 


! Of  which,  I 

; y i 

i i 

1 

V respect-  \ 

ively,  j 

i\  [ 

J 

l i;  j 

Were  declared  “sus- 
picious” from  the 
physical 
examination. 


§ 2.  What  is  Known  about  Tuberculosis, 

Tuberculosis,  also  known  as  phthisis,  pearl  disease  or  consumption, 
has  hitherto  remained  incurable ; it  is  the  most  widely  spread  scourge 
that  mankind  has  to  deal  with.  The  proportion  of  adult  deaths  due  to 
this  cause  has  been  placed  at  a third,  while  at  least  a fifth  of  the  infant 
mortality  has  been  traced  to  this  cause.  Some  authorities  say  that 
about  a seventh  of  the  whole  population  is  carried  off  prematurely  by 
this  disease.  There  are  many  persons  who  die  of  other  diseases,  and 
again  many  whose  bodies  are  not  examined,  who  in  all  likelihood 
have  developed  tubercles  to  an  unknown  extent.  Then,  too,  there  are 
other  diseases,  evidently  closely  related,  but  in  just  what  way  science 
has  not  yet  discovered,  such  as  scrofula  and  lupus ; even  syphilis  and 
leprosy  have  been  suspected  of  having  relationship  here.  With  all 
due  reserve,  the  most  conservative  of  physicians  admit  the  prime 
importance  of  studies  relating  to  this  prince  of  maladies. 

In  1882  Robert  Koch  definitely  settled  the  question  of  the  cause  of 
tuberculosis  by  discovering  the  parasite,  the  presence  of  which  in  the 
animal  tissues  causes  those  degenerations  and  growths  of  abnormal 
tissue  known  as  tubercles.  This  parasite  is  a bacterium  or  bacillus , a 
rod- like  living  organism  less  than  one  seventy- thousandth  of  an  inch 
thick  and  averaging  one  eight-thousandth  of  an  inch  in  length.  Like 
other  bacteria  it  grows  and  multiplies  by  feeding  on  the  juices  of  the 
body  and  reproduces  by  continual  breaking  into  halves,  each  of  which 
is  a complete  organism  from  its  birth.  We  can  easily  calculate 
the  immense  numbers  that  would  exist  in  a short  time  if  the  condi- 
tions for  feeding  and  reproduction  continued  favorable.  Fortunately 
our  tissues  fight  these  parasites  and  it  is  probable  that  the  tuberculous 
mass  results  from  an  attempt  on  the  part  of  the  tissue  to  imprison 


9, 


these  marauders,  because  the  blood-supply  is  cut  off  from  the  gland 
or  locality  of  growth  by  the  formation  of  fibrous  material,  so  that  the 
internal  parts  of  the  tubercle  gradually  change  into  cheesy  material  or 
undergo  other  degenerative  changes  the  nature  of  which  is  obscure. 

Since  this  discovery  by  Koch,  physicians  have  separated  into  three 
divisions  on  the  question  of  the  cause  and  nature  of  consumption. 

The  first  class  says,  let  the  germ  once  invade  a healthy  man  and  he 
will  contract  the  disease ; hence  the  full  cause  of  the  disease  is  the 
presence  of  germs ; therefore  we  must  combat  them,  kill  them,  isolate 
all  consumptive  persons  and  animals,  destroy  all  tuberculous  meat 
and  food  products ; in  short,  as  soon  and  as  thoroughly  as  possible, 
eradicate  this  germ.  This  group  of  physicians  is  giving  way,  in  part, 
to  a second  group,  now  largely  increasing  in  numbers,  who  believe 
that  an  appropriate  soil  is  necessary,  a weak  condition  of  constitution, 
produced  by  poor  feeding,  bad  habits  and  especially  by  poor  ventila- 
tion. Such  a constitution  presents  appropriate  conditions  for  the  in- 
vasion of  disease  germs.  Science  has  considerable  to  say  on  this 
point  just  now,  and  it  seems  likely  that  the  “ proper  soil  ” theory  will 
narrow  down  to  this,  viz.,  the  body  is  too  weak  to  combat  the  entrance 
of  germs  or  to  restrict  them  after  entrance . This  is  done  in  various 
ways,  the  most  usual  being  the  eating  (to  use  a popular  expression)  of 
the  germs  by  the  white  cells  of  the  blood,  the  lymph  corpuscles ; also 
the  secretion  of  special  poisons  by  certain  tissues,  inimical  to  the 
germs,  which  are  thus  met  by  their  own  weapons,  for  it  is  now 
recognized  that  bacteria  produce  disease  by  means  of  the  poisons  they 
excrete  while  trying  to  gain  their  own  subsistence.  Scientific  investi- 
gation will  doubtless  discover  other  methods  the  body  has  of  fighting 
against  these  germs,  the  sum  total  of  which  powers  constitutes  good 
health. 

The  third  group  of  theorists  is  loth  to  give  up  the  old  view  of 
disease,  that  it  is  a condition  of  constitution  produced  by  failure  of 
life  forces  to  keep  up  a certain  “ vital  force  ” in  face  of  external 
changes.  Thus  it  follows  that  the  environment  causes  disease  in  the 
weak,  e.  g.  a cold  is  produced  by  exposure.  The  products  of  dis- 
ease, mucous  or  tubercle  or  what  not,  become  breeding-grounds  for  the 
bacteria  which  may  or  may  not  find  their  way  thither.  Certain 
cases  of  tubercle,  in  which  investigators  failed  to  find  the  germs,  are 
brought  up  in  evidence,  and  the  reply  of  their  opponents  that  the 

2 


10 


bacilli  must  have  been  present  originally  is  ridiculed  as  begging  the 
question. 

It  seems  apparent  that  the  members  of  the  second  group  hold  all 
that  is  valuable  in  the  evidence  supporting  the  first  and  third  classes 
of  views,  and  those  who  are  familiar  with  disease  germs  by  actual 
experiment  with  them  belong  overwhelmingly  to  the  middle  class. 
Thus  the  present  verdict  of  authority  emphasizes  hygienic  as  well  as 
germicidal  and  quarantinal  methods. 

Are  all  tubercular  growths  due  to  a single  species  of  germ  ? From 
what  we  know  by  analogy  of  germ  investigations  in  general,  we 
might  expect  that  the  varieties  of  tubercle  and  of  consumption  are 
due  entirely  to  individual  peculiarities  of  the  person  reacting  on  one 
species  of  germ.  Thus,  the  germ  of  quick  consumption,  when  trans- 
planted into  another  person,  need  not  produce  this  variety  of  disease, 
and  similarly,  the  germ  of  chronic  tubercle,  in  all  likelihood,  does  not 
change  its  nature  when  transplanted  into  a person  who,  as  a result, 
suffers  from  quick  consumption.  It  is  rational  to  believe  that  when 
a person  who  has  suffered  for  years  from  the  “ slow  ” variety  suddenly 
develops  the  “ quick  ” variety,  that  his  constitution  has  finally  given 
up  the  struggle.  We  all  give  up  the  struggle  of  life  sooner  or  later, 
and  these  germs  are  only  a specific  form  of  the  varied  forces  that 
cause  death  universally.  The  burden  of  proof  lies  with  those  who 
assert  that  there  are  various  distinct  species  of  consumption  germs. 
Some  tubercles,  which  are  produced  apparently  without  the  agency  of 
germs,  may  be  due  either  to  ultra-microscopic  spores,  or  the  germs 
may  have  disintegrated,  possibly  forming  spores,  which  we  know  are 
difficult,  if  not  practically  impossible,  to  demonstrate  in  certain  cases. 

The  germ  of  tuberculosis  in  animals  differs  slightly  as  to  size  from 
that  thrown  up  in  the  sputum  of  consumptives,  yet  the  character- 
istic forms  of  tuberculosis  have  repeatedly  been  produced  in  animals 
inoculated  with  tuberculous  germs  taken  from  man  and  from  other 
species  of  animals  at  will.  Science  has,  indeed,  shown  that  other 
germs,  as  in  actinomycosis,  for  example,  do  produce  forms  of  tubercle 
that  have  been  mistaken  for  tuberculosis,  but  the  same  science  that 
demonstrates  this  specific  difference  is  competent,  by  means  of  similar 
methods,  to  pronounce  upon  the  question  of  the  unity  of  the  disease 
tuberculosis.  While  we  admit  that  the  question  is  not  finally  closed, 
we  must  act  on  the  evidence  already  in,  and  that  evidence  is  in  favor 
of  such  unity. 


11 


To  what  extent  are  our  domestic  cattle  affected  with  tuberculosis  ? 
Statistics  of  slaughter-house  and  meat  inspection  in  various  countries 
rand  cities  give  as  an  average  about  3 per  cent.,  but  locally  the 
.percentage  may  rise  far  higher  or  may  be  lower ; 16  per  cent,  and  26 
per  cent,  are  some  of  the  figures  quoted.  One  authority  has  stated 
that  50  per  cent,  of  the  cattle  of  Holland  was  infected.  The  entire 
College  herd  of  fifty-seven  animals  of  the  Maine  State  Agricultural 
•College  was  slaughtered  and  buried  as  the  result  of  physical  examina- 
tion alone.  Our  herd  has  been  found  tuberculous  to  the  extent  of 
70  per  cent.  A herd  at  Burlington,  N.  J.,  injected  with  tuberculin 
last  autumn,  was  found  affected  to  the  extent  of  60  per  cent.  A herd 
of  high-bred  Jerseys  at  Villa  Nova,  Pa.,  was  tuberculous  to  the 
extent  of  50  per  cent.  The  Willard  Asylum,  N.  Y.,  lost  nearly  two 
hundred  high-bred  Holsteins.  And,  as  inspection  goes  on,  cases  of 
similar  great  infection  are  continually  being  reported.  When  once 
tuberculosis  has  gained  foothold  in  a herd,  it  rapidly  spreads  through 
the  entire  lot.  Our  statistics  show  that  by  the  use  of  tuberculin 
twice  as  many  cows  were  discovered  infected  as  physical  examination 
;alone  would  have  revealed.  Statistics  gathered  in  the  past,  based  on 
physical  examination  alone,  are  undoubtedly  too  small.  Even  those 
based  on  meat  inspection  are  probably  under  the  truth.  The  majority 
•of  the  cows  shown  to  be  tuberculous  by  our  use  of  the  Koch  test  had 
tuberculosis  in  either  incipient  degree  or  so  slightly  that  very  thorough 
examination  of  entrails  and  the  lymphatic  structures  connected  with 
the  lungs  became  needful  in  order  to  diagnose  the  disease  from 
autopsy.  Are  we  sure  that  such  examination  of  structures,  usually 
thrown  on  the  refuse  pile,  though  sometimes  used  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  sausages,  was  absolutely  thorough  ? As  regards  the  carcass, 
trimmed  of  these  organs,  it  has  been  shown  that  only  in  the  severest 
oases,  and  then  only  to  the  extent  of  10  per  cent.,  is  the  muscular 
portion  invaded  by  bacilli,  and  then  only  to  microscopic  extent, 
requiring  inoculation  experiments  to  demonstrate.  Most  observers 
have  failed  utterly  to  find  the  bacilli  in  the  meat  of  tuberculous 
animals  after  the  most  careful  work,  consisting  of  inoculation 
experiments. 

How  far  are  other  animals  affected?  The  domestic  fowl  is  even 
more  subject  to  tuberculosis  than  the  cow.  Zurn  found  sixty- two 
oases  in  six  hundred  examinations.  More  than  ten  per  cent.  Cats, 
Hogs  and  especially  swine  are  susceptible  to  this  contagion,  as  are,  in  a 


12 


greater  degree,  captive  animals.  Rabbits,  guinea  pigs  and  mice  are 
so  very  susceptible  that  they  are  used  in  all  delicate  inoculation  ex- 
periments to  test  the  presence  of  bacilli. 

This  disease  has  been  termed  both  contagious  and  infectious,  but 
both  these  terms  grow  out  of  the  fact  that  it  is  due  to  a germ,  and 
thus  the  old  distinction  between  these  terms  is  seen  to  be  of  secondary, 
perhaps  trivial,  value.  Certain  it  is  that  no  matter  how  susceptible 
a person  or  animal  may  be,  if  the  germs  are  not  introduced  into  the 
system  no  disease  of  this  sort  will  result.  It  is  this  conviction,  rest- 
ing on  sure  foundations,  that  is  the  real  animus  in  the  work  of 
physicians  as  they  agitate  in  favor  of  methods  for  stamping  out  or 
restricting  the  disease,  on  the  one  hand,  by  a quarantine  of  con- 
sumptives, with  extreme  care  in  dealing  with  sputa ; and  on  the 
other,  by  the  destruction  of  tuberculous  animals  and  care  in  the  dis- 
posal of  their  carcasses. 

What  conditions  favor  the  state  of  susceptibility  to  consumption  ? 
First  and  foremost  is  bad  ventilation.  Naturally  this  weakens  the 
life-forces,  and  at  the  same  time  presents  the  germs  in  increased  num- 
bers in  every  breath.  While  in  cultures,  and  in  very  susceptible 
bodies,  a single  germ  can  generate  millions  of  offspring,  it  is  found 
that  the  question  of  numbers  of  these  parasites  counts  for  much. 
There  is  plenty  of  evidence  to  show  that  tuberculous  subjects,  whether 
human  or  animal,  are  almost  exclusively  or  at  least  in  great  majority 
produced  in  ill-ventilated  habitations.  Next,  if  not  of  equal  import- 
ance, is  sunlight.  I find  this  point  not  sufficiently  emphasized  in  the 
numerous  reports  and  hygienic  recommendations  that  have  been  sent 
out.  People,  as  a rule,  are  afraid  of  the  light.  This  is  one  of  the 
most  sinful  of  unhygienic  practices.  The  shady  side  of  streets  receives 
more  visits  annually  from  the  physicians  than  do  the  sunny  side,  in 
spite  of  numerous  sun  shutting-out  devices.  Koch  states  that  a few 
hours  of  sunlight  acting  on  a tuberculous  germ  will  destroy  it,  and  a 
few  days  of  diffused  daylight  are  germicidal.  Why  neglect  this  chief 
of  disinfectants?  We  have  bacteria  classified  as  aerobic  and  anaerobic, 
according  as  they  thrive  with  or  without  access  of  air.  We  need  to 
classify  bacteria  as  photic  and  aphotic.  A next  fertile  source  of  sus- 
ceptibility is  heredity.  I find  this  word  used  hardly  a single  time,  by 
writers,  in  its  proper  sense.  The  transmission  of  a germ  from  a mother 
to  a foetus  is  congenital  transmission  of  disease  (or  congenital  infection) 
and  never  is  itself  true  heredity,  which  word  means  the  sum  total  of 


13 


the  species  characteristics  as  modified  by  the  special  environment  in 
which  the  individual  is  produced  and  to  which  the  individuality  is 
due.  Thus,  if  the  tissues,  by  heredity,  are  strong,  the  tendency  to 
contract  consumption  at  any  period  of  life,  prenatally  or  postnatally,  is 
slight.  But  if  they  are  weak,  the  susceptibility  in  this  regard  is 
strong  or  certain.  This  explains  why  consumption  runs  in  families. 
Possibly  in  these  cases,  many  times,  the  foetus  is  infected  from  a con- 
sumptive mother  during  gestation,  or  even  from  a father,  before  con- 
ception, but  such  transmission  is  simply  early  infection.  The  acquir- 
ing of  consumption  by  infection  in  later  life  is  as  truly  due  to  heredi- 
tary influence  as  is  foetal  infection,  in  such  cases.  In  this  sense  all 
cases  of  consumption  are  always  both  hereditary  and  due  to  infection ; 
but  the  special  sort  of  infection  termed  “ hereditary”  should  always 
be  designated  as  “ congenital  ” infection  or  transmission. 

Finally,  we  have  to  enumerate  general  unsanitary  living,  overwork, 
bad  feeding,  lack  of  exercise,  dissipation  and  all  bad  habits  that  tend 
to  weaken  the  organism.  It  has  been  stated  that  a healthy  lung  can- 
not be  infected  with  tubercle  germs,  but  there  must  exist  some  abrasion 
or  lesion,  an  inflammation,  perhaps,  due  to  the  irritation  of  dust  par- 
ticles. Statistics  show  that  workers  in  an  atmosphere  filled  with  dust 
of  various  sorts  suffer  proportionally  more  from  consumption.  Such 
abrasions  and  inflammations  are  less  apt  to  arise  in  one  who  takes 
good  care  of  his  health,  original  hereditary  endowment  being  equal. 
But  we  all  have  our  special  weaknesses,  and  at  those  points  the  fortress 
is  taken  by  some  germ  species  or  other.  The  weakest  are  first  weeded 
out.  It  is  our  duty  to  fight  disease  germs  by  scientific  methods,  as 
well  as  by  our  phagocytes  and  toxalbumins ; thus  our  energies  are 
available  in  other  lines  and  last  longer.  But  it  must  never  be  for- 
gotten that  our  present  immunity  from  many  of  the  germs  about  us, 
at  least  for  the  average  lifetime  of  man,  has  been  purchased  at  the 
expense  of  the  weeding  out  of  susceptible  ancestors,  so  that  we  who 
remain  are  the  descendants  of  the  strongest. 

I point  out  a danger  that  may  arise  could  we  really  succeed  in  ex- 
tinguishing this  species  (which  is  not  probable),  viz.,  the  evolution  of 
a weakened  race,  into  which,  at  some  future  time,  some  germ  now 
restricted  in  its  operations,  shall  suddenly  make  an  incursion  as  a 
Xi  scourge  of  God.”  We,  in  fact,  aid  the  beneficent  work  begun  by 
these  bacteria  when  we  hasten  the  death  of  the  animals  which  we  are 
responsible  for  having  produced,  with  their  weak  constitutions : a 


14 


weakness  due  to  our  forcing  methods  of  feeding,  with  brewers’  grains,, 
for  example,  our  overcrowding  and,  above  all,  our  close  inbreeding. 
Biology  teaches  us  that  the  great  use  of  crossing  is  to  produce  vigor,, 
but  in  the  evolution  of  our  dairy  breeds  this  is,  to  a large  extent, 
neglected. 

We  should  always  emphasize  the  importance  of  hygienic  methods  of 
life  without  lessening  that  fear  of  the  germs  which  leads  to  cleanliness. 
The  promotion  of  aseptic  and  antiseptic  conditions  is  only  a particular 
branch  of  hygiene.  In  what  ways  do  the  germs  enter  the  body — 
human  and  animal  ? Some  cases  are  undoubtedly  due  to  congenital 
infection  or  transmission.  A case  has  been  clearly  established  in 
which  a foetus  was  tuberculous,  while  the  mother  had  tubercle  in  the 
lung  only.  It  is  presumed  that  at  some  period  a few  bacilli  or  spores 
had  been  carried  by  the  blood  to  the  placenta  and  had  been  trans- 
ferred to  the  foetal  circulation.  Possibly,  certain  leucocytes  had  been 
the  carriers  of  the  germs,  for  they,  by  diapedesis,  it  seems  to  me, 
could  be  the  only  agents  in  such  a transfer,  as  these  bacilli  are  not 
known  to  possess  locomotor  powers.  That  bacilli  multiplying  in  one 
part  of  the  body  may  be  transferred  to  distant  portions  of  the  body  is 
evident  from  an  inspection  of  the  evidence  presented  by  numerous 
histories  of  cases.  It  is  also  shown  by  the  experiment  of  a Greek 
physician,  who  inoculated  a man  in  the  thigh,  and  in  a few  weeks  the 
lungs,  hitherto  sound,  were  thoroughly  infected.  It  is  a plausible 
supposition  that  the  intrasomatic  distribution  of  the  bacilli  is  due  to 
the  lymphatic  circulation,  although  we  have  no  evidence  as  yet  that 
the  blood  does  not  also  aid.  Tuberculosis  is  primarily  a lymphatic- 
disease  : the  lymph  glands  are  the  first  to  show  signs  of  its  presence. 
We  must  also  remember  that  the  serum  currents  flow  from  the  blood 
vessels  into  the  lymphatics. 

A second  method  of  infection  is  through  abrasions  or  wounds  of  the- 
skin  and  mucous  membranes.  Of  this  several  cases  are  recorded.  A 
third  method  is  through  the  breathing  of  air  containing  the  bacilli. 
In  some  way  due  to  a lack  of  proper  vigor  of  the  cells  lining  the 
bronchial  tubes  the  bacilli  are  not  carried  out,  but  lie  and  probably 
breed  on  the  surface  before  penetrating  into  the  interior.  It  seems  to 
have  been  taken  for  granted  that  every  case  of  lung  consumption  has 
arisen  in  some  way  similar  to  this.  But  it  may  be  that  the  lung  is 
frequently  infected  through  intrasomatic  distribution.  A fourth  point 
of  entrance  is  through  the  walls  of  the  alimentary  canal.  The  pres- 


15 


ence  of  miliary  tubercles  on  the  intestine  is  supposed  to  point  to  this 
conclusion.  But  we  must  not  forget  that  intrasomatic  distribution 
may  have  followed  a primary  lesion  in  the  lungs  which  may  have 
gone  no  further  than  a localized  abrasion  or  inflammation  of  the  air- 
passages.  If  infection  through  the  food  be  granted,  we  must  assume 
that  the  gastric  and  intestinal  juices  have  failed  to  destroy  the  germ. 
Then  we  have  still  to  get  it  through  the  mucous  membrane,  and  in 
this  instance  the  possibility  of  leucocytal  infection  and  diapedesis  must 
likewise  be  granted.  It  is  plain  that  the  inference  of  the  method  of 
infection  from  location  of  tubercular  lesions  is  a complex  one.  That 
infection  may  be  produced  both  by  inspiration  and  by  ingestion,  has 
however,  been  abundantly  proven  by  experiment. 

Next  as  to  the  method  of  intersomatic  transmission.  We  know 
that  in  the  human  subject  the  expectorations  are  the  prime  source  of 
contagion.  “ Millions  of  bacilli  ” have  been  estimated  as  the  daily 
output  from  a single  patient.  The  sputum,  dried  and  turned  to  dust, 
is  in  fit  condition  to  contaminate  both  air  and  food.  The  atmosphere 
in  a room  occupied  by  a small-pox  patient  is  no  more  filled  with  dis- 
ease germs  than  that  occupied  by  a consumptive.  But,  of  course,  we 
have  to  take  many  modifying  circumstances  into  account  when  we 
calculate  the  relative  amount  of  “ risk  ” of  contagion  or  infection  in 
the  two  cases.  These  circumstances  have  been  discussed  in  the  pre- 
ceding pages ; they  are : light,  air,  cleanliness,  vigor,  heredity,  close- 
ness of  contact,  length  of  exposure  and  many  others.  Instances  of 
infection  introduced  by  accessions  of  consumptives  to  healthy  schools 
could  be  cited. 

A number  of  cases  are  on  record  of  pet  animals  catching  consump- 
tion from  their  masters  and  mistresses.  Even  hens  fed  by  a con- 
sumptive have  become  infected.  On  the  other  hand,  what  risk  is 
there  of  transmission  from  animals  to  one  another  and  to  man  ? They 
do  not,  as  a rule,  expectorate,  still  it  has  been  frequently  noticed  that 
the  introduction  of  a tuberculous  animal  in  a herd  has  been  followed 
by  the  gradual  spread  of  the  disease  throughout  the  herd,  beginning 
with  the  cows  nearest  to  the  source  of  contagion.  In  such  cases  it  is 
said  that  the  drinking  vessels  receive  the  germs.  This  presupposes 
that  there  is  a gradual  working  up  of  small  quantities  of  mucus  con- 
taining the  bacilli.  The  excrement  has  been  examined  and  is  gener- 
ally free  from  these  bacilli.  It  has  been  suggested  that  the  expiratory 


16 


breaths  carry  out  the  tuberculous  germs,  but  we  certainly  need  more 
careful  study  of  these  points. 

Finally,  we  have  to  ask,  Does  the  milk  of  a tuberculous  animal 
contain  tubercle  bacilli  ? This  is  important  because  milk  is  univer- 
sally used,  and  is  generally  taken  uncooked.  Cooking  destroys  its 
digestibility  ; four  per  cent,  of  the  fat  of  raw  milk  fails  to  be  assimi- 
lated ; this  rises  to  six  per  cent,  in  the  case  of  boiled  milk.  The  non- 
assimilable  nitrogenous  ingredients  are  similarly  raised  from  seven  to 
eight  per  cent.,  and  the  milk-sugar  also  undergoes  a change.  These 
changes  do  not  take  place  if  the  milk  be  heated  for  a moment  up  to 
185°  F.,  a temperature  which  is  germicidal,  provided  the  milk  be  not 
allowed  to  cool  too  rapidly. 

The  high  percentage  of  infants  showing  intestinal  tuberculosis  has 
been  thought  due  to  the  use  of  contaminated  milk.  Older  persons 
using  the  same  milk  may  not  become  infected.  Other  things  being 
equal,  the  number  of  germs  per  volume  of  milk  is  very  important. 
The  subject  has  been  investigated  by  feeding  experiments,  by  culture 
experiments,  by  inoculation  of  susceptible  animals  and  by  micro- 
scopic examination.  It  was  for  some  time  believed,  on  the  statement 
of  Koch,  that  the  milk  of  a tuberculous  cow  would  not  contain 
tubercle  bacilli  until  the  udder  tissue  became  the  seat  of  a tuberculous 
process.  But  plainly  the  bacilli  must  be  transferred  thither  before 
the  udder  can  become  diseased.  In  the  early  stages  of  tuberculosis 
very  few,  if  any,  bacilli  are  carried  to  the  udder ; but  in  more  ad- 
vanced cases,  showing  tuberculosis  by  physical  examination,  Ernst 
and  Peters  have  found  bacilli  in  the  milk  of  one-half  of  the  cases  (the 
udders  apparently  healthy),  although  other  observers  have  secured 
less  striking,  or  more  often  negative,  results.  Even  with  inoculation 
it  is  found  that  if  milk  which  is  tuberculous  be  diluted  to  a consid- 
erable extent,  forty  or  fifty  to  one  hundred  parts  water  being  added 
(or  less  if  milk  be  added),  it  loses  its  infectious  properties.  Mixed 
milk  is  therefore  safer  than  the  milk  from  a doubtful  cow,  provided 
only  one  or  two  cows  in  a herd  are  affected. 

Feeding  experiments  with  calves  and  pigs  have  given  positive 
results  with  Ernst  and  Peters  and  others,  and  less  positive  or  negative 
results  with  still  other  observers.  Microscopical  examination,  espe- 
cially of  milk,  is  the  least  satisfactory  of  all  methods,  because  the  germs 
must  be  sufficiently  numerous  to  give  at  least  one  germ  for  each  drop 
of  milk,  otherwise  the  chance  of  finding  the  germ  is  so  small  as  to 


17 


increase  the  tediousness  of  search  beyond  practical  limits.  Ernst  and 
Peters,  however,  were  successful  in  demonstrating  the  presence  of  the 
germs  in  one- fourth  of  the  cases. 

In  the  light  of  these  experiments  the  milk  of  a tuberculous  cow  must 
be  regarded  with  suspicion  until  proven  pure . It  is  probably  easier  to 
sterilize  the  milk  than  to  have  it  examined.  It  is  certaibly  risky  to 
use  it  for  feeding  animals  without  boiling.  It  may,  however,  be 
safely  used  as  a whitewash  on  the  outside  of  buildings,  as  when  prop- 
erly salted  it  makes  a valuable  paint.  The  germs  have  been  found 
equally  in  the  cream  and  in  the  milk,  so  that  we  are  as  open  to  infection 
through  our  butter  as  through  our  milk.  It  is  the  belief  of  some  physi- 
cians that  if  all  tuberculous  cows  were  destroyed  consumption  would 
disappear  from  the  human  family.  This  is  based  on  the  observation 
that  where  cows  are  absent  there  is  no  consumption.  By  the  use  of 
Koch’s  lymph  we  are  now  able  to  detect  twice  as  many  tuberculous 
cattle  as  was  possible  by  former  methods.  Should  it  prove  infallible,, 
succeeding  in  demonstrating  every  tuberculous  animal  (when  used  in 
connection  with  physical  examination),  we  have  the  means  wherewith 
to  test  the  truth  of  the  belief  that  human  consumption  is  derived  from 
bovine  tuberculosis.  Nothing  but  good  can  be  the  ultimate  result 
from  an  attempt  to  weed  out  the  tuberculous  stock  in  our  dairies,  and 
doubtless  the  breeder  and  the  dairyman  will  find  it  to  their  highest 
interest  to  effect  this  result  as  promptly  as  necessary. 

§ 3.  Detailed  Record  of  Operations  Relative  to  the  Diagnosis  of 
Bovine  Tuberculosis. 

This  section  supplements  section  1,  and  presents  the  scientific  data' 
of  the  experiments  and  observations  which  are  to  be  discussed  in 
section  4. 

The  following  order  of  work  was  followed  as  nearly  as  possible,  in 
the  case  of  each  cow  in  the  herd  : 

(1)  Physical  examination  by  a veterinarian. 

(2)  Temperature  per  vaginam  by  means  of  a self- registering  clinical 
thermometer. 

(3)  Washing  (with  warm  water  and  soap)  of  the  right  shoulder 
and  rinsing. 

(4)  Washing  with  a 4 per  cent,  solution  of  creoline,  an  antiseptic 
claimed  to  be  superior  to  carbolic  acid. 

3 


18 


(5)  Injection,  hypodermically,  of  approximately  50  minims  (=3  cc.) 
of  a 10  per  cent,  solution  of  tuberculinum  Kochii  in  a 1 per  cent,  solu- 
tion of  carbolic  acid — the  puncture  swabbed  with  creoline  solution. 

(6)  Temperature  tested  approximately  every  three  hours  for  a 
period  of  twenty-four  hours. 

(7)  Examination  of  the  records  made  by  each  cow  and  ascertain- 
ment of  the  amount  of  reaction,  as  measured  by  the  highest  record 
compared  with  the  highest  normal  record.  The  latter,  presumed  to 
be  about  at  evening  time,  was  given  by  the  first  two  readings  taken 
before  the  tuberculin  had  time  to  act.  In  some  cases  a curve  of  the 
temperatures  was  plotted,  and  in  doubtful  cases  the  temperatures 
were  observed  again  when  the  animal  was  not  under  the  influence  of 
the  “ lymph.” 

(8)  The  assignment  of  each  animal  to  a certain  rank,  determined 
by  the  extent  and  certitude  of  the  reaction ; the  order  of  rank  from 
highest  to  lowest  being  taken  as  determining  the  order  of  slaughter. 
We  also  determined,  in  case  any  doubt  remained  as  to  the  stopping 
point,  that  the  occurrence  of  two  successive  cases  of  tuberculous-free 
autopsies  be  the  signal  for  stoppage. 

(9)  Samples  of  milk  were  drawn  into  clean  tubes  stopped  with  cot- 
ton, the  milk  being  taken  from  each  teat  separately. 

(10)  A portion  of  the  milk  was  prepared  by  Thorner’s  method  for 
determining  the  presence  of  tubercle  bacilli  by  microscopic  examina- 
tion, after  the  use  of  the  centrifugal  machine.  This  method  consists 
in  first  alkalinizing  the  sample  in  a test  tube  with  potash  to  the  extent 
of  1 per  cent.,  next  heating  until  the  milk  turns  brownish  and  the  fat 
is  partly  saponified  and  the  casein  rendered  soluble  in  acids,  then 
adding  an  equal  amount  of  glacial  acetic  acid  and  heating  until  a 
tolerably  clear  liquid  results.  This  liquid  is  then  whirled  with  four 
thousand  revolutions  per  minute,  the  sediment,  containing  tubercle 
germs  in  a concentrated  or  aggregated  mass,  is  washed  in  hot  water, 
which  is  again  whirled  for  ten  or  fifteen  minutes,  and  the  new  sedi- 
ment is  prepared  for  microscopic  examination.  The  object  is,  first,  to 
get  rid  of  the  fat  globules  which  always  rise  in  a centrifugal  machine 
and  drag  at  least  half  the  bacteria  with  them ; second,  to  gather  the 
germs  from  a relatively  large  quantity  of  milk  into  a small  compass, 
so  as  to  insure  their  being  found  under  microscopic  examination. 
Our  centrifugal  machine  was  a Babcock  tester,  run  by  hand-power, 
capable  of  giving  only  one  thousand  revolutions  per  minute,  and  after 


19 


thoroughly  testing  its  ability  to  separate  bacteria,  and  discovering  that 
•even  after  an  hour’s  whirling  no  appreciable  diminution  of  germs 
resulted  near  the  surface,  while  only  the  coarser  sediment  (which, 
however,  dragged  down  a few  bacteria)  gathered  at  the  bottom  of  the 
tubes,  I dropped  this  link  in  the  series  of  tests. 

(11)  A portion  of  the  milk  was  evaporated  on  glass  slips  and  slides 
in  an  incubator  at  104°  F.,  and  some  at  70°.  All  samples  thus  pre- 
pared were  inclosed,  when  dry,  in  envelopes  and  stored  for  future 
work. 

(12)  A final  portion  of  the  milk  was  preserved,  either  by  addition 
of  corrosive  sublimate  or  of  bichromate  of  potash,  and  stored  in 
cotton-plugged  tubes  for  examination. 

(13)  The  animals  were  next  led  to  execution,  killed,  skinned  and 
opened  by  a butcher,  under  guidance  of  the  observer. 

(14)  Samples  from  each  quarter  of  the  udder  were  preserved  in  a 
weak  alcohol,  saturated  with  corrosive  sublimate.  To  each  piece  of 
tissue  was  pinned  a number,  and  a record  was  kept  of  the  reference 
of  each  number  to  the  proper  kind,  location,  etc.,  of  specimen.  The 
udder  was,  in  each  case,  split  down  into  the  middle  of  each  side  to 
note  if  any  lesions  were  present.  The  inguinal  glands  were  also 
examined.  Specimens  of  tissues  other  than  udder  were  usually  not 
taken,  except  they  presented  either  doubtful  features,  or  something 
peculiar,  or  possessed  typical  value. 

(15)  The  trachea,  heart,  lungs  and  mediastinal  glands  were  next 
removed  and  thoroughly  examined.  Note  was  made  of  the  extent  to 
which  these  structures  were  tuberculized,  and  often  samples  were  pre- 
served for  microscopic  examination. 

(16)  The  liver  and  intestines  and  other  abdominal  organs  were 
next  inspected.  If  tuberculosis  was  evident  in  the  thorax,  as  our 
object  was  primarily  to  test  the  diagnostic  value  of  the  lymph  and  to 
destroy  the  diseased  animals,  we  allowed  only  a superficial  examina- 
tion of  the  abdominal  viscera  to  pass.  We  learned,  however,  soon  to 
look  for  lesions  in  certain  favored  localities,  and  these  were  quickly 
inspected.  These  regions  usually  furnished  the  largest  number  of 
specimens  preserved  for  microtomic  work. 

(17)  The  uterus  was  examined,  and  if  any  foetuses  were  present,  if 
of  small  size,  they  were  preserved,  and  if  too  large  for  the  museum 
jars,  samples  of  their  organs  were  taken.  In  the  later  cases,  but,  I 
regret  to  say,  not  in  the  earlier  ones,  the  ovaries  were  examined  and 
samples  preserved. 


20 


We  have,  therefore,  material  for  study  which  will  throw  light  on 
the  following  points : 

(a)  What  tuberculous  lesions  can  be  diagnosed  by  physical  exami- 
nation, and  what  cannot  ? 

(b)  What  peculiarities  characterize  a tuberculous  reaction  with 
Koch’s  lymph — that  is,  can  we  certainly,  by  this  test,  select  all  tuber- 
culous cattle  ? 

(bb)  What  may  be  expected  as  the  normal  range  of  temperature  of 
a cow? 

(c)  To  what  extent  is  the  milk  or  udder  involved  in  cases  of  bovine 
tuberculosis  ? 

( d ) To  what  extent  is  congenital  transmission  or  " foetal  infection 
operative  ? 

(dd)  Does  the  feeding  of  milk  from  tuberculous  cattle  to  calves- 
produce  infection  ? 

On  all  these  points  we  have  already  more  or  less  evidence,  but  not 
so  much  but  that  we  require  more  light  before  any  consensus  of 
opinion  and  legal  activity  will  result.  While  the  primary  object  has 
been  the  removal  of  tuberculous  animals  from  the  College  herd,  the 
work  has  been  so  done  as  to  enable  us  to  increase  our  knowledge  of 
this  disease,  and  it  is  expected  that  the  publication  of  these  results 
will  serve  to  increase  any  efforts  now  made  in  augmenting  scientific 
knowledge  by  others  who  are  engaged  in  a similar  work.  Science 
depends  on  a “ multitude  of  witnesses.”  The  reports  we  now  have,., 
in  many  instances,  give  only  one  or  two  “ supposed  ” cases,  on  the 
strength  of  which  important  conclusions  are  made. 

Finally,  I must  call  attention  to  the  fact  that  this  is  a report  of 
progress  and  is  partial.  The  study  has  not  gone  far  enough  to  allow 
of  publication  of  results  under  the  heads  of  (bb),  (c),  ( d ),  (dd) ; special 
bulletins  or  reports  will  appear  on  these  subjects  as  fast  as  the  work 
is  completed.  The  main  object  of  the  present  report  is  to  introduce 
the  subject,  to  record  the  outline  of  work,  to  test  the  exact  value  of 
Koch’s  lymph  and  to  indicate  the  rules  for  its  use  and  the  interpreta- 
tion of  “ reactions.” 

In  chronologic  order,  the  work  progressed  as  follows : 

June  22d,  1893.  First  examination  of  Tryntje’s  milk. 

July  14th.  First  conference  with  Dr.  Pearson. 

July  24th.  Injection  of  Tryntje.  See  Tables,  Case  1. 


21 


August  11th.  Milk  from  right  hind  quarter  of  Tryntje’ s udder  gargety ; micro- 
scopic examination  shows  tubercle  bacilli. 

August  15th — September  15th.  During  my  absence  in  the  West,  Mr.  Jones 
•observes  milk  from  each  separate  teat  at  each  milking  of  Tryntje,  and  reports  at  the 
close  of  the  month  that  no  change  in  the  quality  of  the  milk  had  taken  place.  The 
milk  from  the  one  teat  remained  uniformly  “gargety.” 

October  7th.  Second  conference  with  Dr.  Pearson.  Doubt  having  been  expressed 
as  to  the  conclusiveness  of  the  evidence  presented  by  my  microscopic  preparations, 
I was  asked  to  send  sample  of  milk  for  study  at  the  Laboratory  of  Hygiene,  under 
Dr.  A.  C.  Abbott,  University  of  Pennsylvania. 

October  9th.  Milk  sent  to  Dr.  Abbott.  Misunderstanding  having  arisen  as  to  the 
use  to  be  made  of  the  sample,  explanatory  correspondence  ensued. 

October  18th.  Dr.  Abbott  reported  that  microscopic  examination  showed  presence 
•of  tubercle  bacilli  in  said  sample  of  milk. 

October  29th.  Tryntje  gave  birth  to  heifer  calf. 

November  8th.  Tryntje’s  calf  and  cow  66  injected,  See  Table,  Cases  2 and  3. 

November  9th.  Tryntje’s  calf  killed.  Dr.  H.  E.  Baldwin,  Dr.  A.  Y.  N.  Baldwin 
and  Mr.  E.  A.  Jones  assisted  at  the  autopsy.  Specimens  preserved  as  follows : Lung, 
tmse  of  left  lung,  apex  of  right  lung,  thymus  gland,  submaxillary  salivary  gland, 
spleen,  mesenteric  glands,  Peyer’s  patches,  liver,  kidney  capsule,  kidney,  small  colon. 
No  microscopic  lesions  visible. 

November  10th.  Milk  from  right  front  quarter  of  Tryntje’s  udder  becomes 
gargety.  Kecommended  that  samples  of  milk  from  different  teats  be  analyzed 
•chemically. 

The  chemical  analysis  was  made  under  direction  of  Dr.  E.  B.  Voorhees,  in  the 
€>tate  Laboratory,  with  the  following  result,  comparison  being  made  with  normal 
milk  and  cases  published  by  A.  W.  Blyth  : 


Solids. 

"oi 

& 

Albumens. 

Sugar. 

Ash. 

f Eight  back  teat  

621 

0.20 

5.13 

0.13 

0.75 

Case  j “ front  “ 

7.79 

1.81 

4.33 

0.60 

1.05 

1.  ] Left  back  “ 

8.83 

1.93 

3.92 

2.11 

0.87 

L “ front  “ 

9.79 

2.58 

3.93 

2.24 

1.04 

Cow  73,  entire  bag 

15.88 

8.11 

3.34 

3.69 

0.74 

Cow  f Normal  milk  (Blyth,  p. 
A.  \ 221) 

water. 

86.87 

3.50 

4.75 

4.00 

0.70 

qow  f Five-year-old  cow,  right 
p,  < lung  tuberculous 
l (Blyth,  p.  263) 

s.  gravity. 
1.029 

2.77 

4.51 

2.82 

0.86 

Dates. 
Dec.,  ’78. 

1.034 

3.83 

5.76 

3.34 

0.77 

Feb, ’79. 

p ( Two-year-old  cow  ad- 

n < vanced  phthisis  (Blvth, 

1 i c.) :.... 

1.033 

2.60 

3.00 

2.89 

0.91 

Jan. 

1.033 

3.28 

4.00 

4.10 

0.78 

Feb. 

f Cow  with  tubercular  (?) 
Cow  j gargety  udder  (Blyth, 

D.  | 1 c.) 

water. 

94.64 

0.49 

3.60 

0.47 

0.76 

s.  gravity. 
1.018 

22 


Remarks  on  above  table:  Fat  content  of  tubercular  milk  is  progressively  reduced,. 
The  albumens  vary  considerably,  the  main  change  being  in  reduction  of  casein  and 
increase  of  “ albumen  ” Sugar  is  greatly  decreased,  the  ash  is  nearly  unchanged,  the 
specific  gravity  is  also  reduced.  The  carbonaceous  constituents  suffer  most  change^ 
(reduction). 

November  15th.  Received  letter  from  chairman  of  Farm  Committee  stating  that 
Dr.  Loblein  had  examined  cow  73  and  diagnosed  tuberculosis,  locating  the  lung 
deposit  behind  the  left  shoulder.  The  milk  of  this  cow  had  been  used  to  feed  Fill- 
pail’s  calf  (Case  No.  5).  Isolation  and  trial  of  tuberculin  on  both  the  cow  and  the 
calf  was  recommended. 

November  16th.  Cow  73  injected;  showed  reaction.  See  Case  4. 

November  30th.  Tryntje  died  this  morning.  Autopsy  held  at  3 p.  m.,  at  which 
were  present  Dr.  Austin  Scott,  Director  of  the  Agricultural  College  Station  ; Dr.  H. 
R.  Baldwin,  Dr.  A.  V.  N.  Baldwin,  Dr.  E.  L.  Loblein,  P.  Calydon  Cameron  and  the- 
writer,  besides  the  butcher  and  farm  hands.  The  following  notes  were  made. 
Specimens  numbered  were  preserved : 

(1)  Posterior  part  right  hind  quarter  of  udder,  when  cut,  pus  issued  from, 
milk  ducts.  (2)  Middle  portion  of  same  quarter.  (3)  Right  fore  quarter  of  udder. 
(4)  Left  fore  quarter  of  udder.  (5)  Left  hind  quarter  of  udder.  (6)  Peritoneal 
tubercle  from  left  side.  (7)  Tubercles  from  pleura.  (8)  Spleen.  (9)  Omentum* 
[caul].  (10)  Small  colon  near  ileocolic  valve.  (11)  Tubercle  from  small  colon. 
(12)  Mesenteric  gland  near  small  colon.  (54)  Left  lung.  (312)  Liver.  (119)  Kid- 
ney. (107)  Base  of  right  lung.  (68)  Muscle  tissue,  subscapular.  The  lumen  of 
small  intestine  and  small  colon  practically  obliterated  by  presence  of  a large  sausage- 
shaped tubercle  that  had  grown  into  it.  Thoracic  and  abdominal  viscera  adhered  to. 
pleural  and  peritoneal  walls.  Tubercles  seen  on  the  meninges  of  the  cerebellum. 
Part  of  posterior  cerebral  lobes  also  preserved.  A heavy,  peculiar  odor  arose  from 
the  tissues,  which  had  a very  depressing  effect  on  the  author  and  was  felt  for  several 
days,  although  he  has  been  accustomed  to  the  dissection  of  “ rank”  carcasses. 

December  11th.  Injected  Fillpail’s  calf,  born  November  8th,  and  fed  on  milk  of 
66.  See  Case  5.  Calf  strong  and  thrifty. 

December  15th.  Mr.  Jones  observed  record  of  calf  again  without  injection.  See- 
Case  5a. 

December  23d.  Held  autopsies  of  Cases  3 and  4,  Dr.  H.  R.  Baldwin  and  Dr.  E. 
L.  Loblein  assisting.  For  general  description,  see  section  1. 

Tag  73.  (1)  Isolated  tubercle  from  left  lung.  (2)  Thymus  gland,  tuberculous; 
mediastinal  glands  breaking  down  in  center.  (3)  Apparently  healthy  tissue  from- 
right  lung.  (4)  Right  fore  quarter  of  udder.  (5)  Yellow  spot  from  surface  of  kid- 
ney. (6)  Nodules  from  liver ; four  months’  bull  foetus  present  preserved,  also  the- 
amnion  and  placenta. 

Tag  66.  Right  pleura  studded  with  tubercles,  of  which  (7)  is  a specimen ; left 
pleura  ditto  ; both  lungs  tuberculous  throughout;  anterior  and  posterior  mediastina 
solid  with  tubercles.  (8)  Right  front  quarter  udder.  (9)  Left  front  ditto.  (10) 
Right  hind  ditto.  (11)  Left  hind  ditto  ; liver  lead  colored,  studded  with  tubercles 
and  tubercle  masses  all  through  ; bile  abnormal.  (12)  Pedunculated  tubercle  from* 
liver.  (13)  Friable  tissue  of  liver.  (14)  Omental  tubercle.  (15)  Part  of  smalb 
colon. 


23 


December  28th.  Dr.  Loblein  begins  thorough  physical  examination  of  herd. 

December  29th.  Injected  cases  7 to  25,  inclusive.  See  table.  Time  occupied, 
6 p.  M.  to  8 p.  M.  One  assistant  washed  the  right  shoulder,  followed  by  second 
assistant,  who  applied  creoline.  Two  men  held  the  animal  in  place  by  means  of 
rails  on  both  sides.  Mr.  Jones  took  the  temperature.  Amount  of  dose  for  each  case 
determined  by  rough  guess  at  relative  size  of  cow. 

January  2d,  1894.  Injected  cases  26  to  41,  inclusive.  Time,  6 p.  m.  to  7 p.  m. 

January  5tli.  Received  a bottle  of  milk  from  cow  in  herd  of  George  VandrufF, 
Deckertown,  N.  J.,  which  differed  in  no  microscopic  respect  from  the  “gargety” 
milk  of  Tryntje.  At  this  time  I was  engaged  in  certain  microscopic  investigations 
bearing  on  the  interference  of  chromatic  aberration  of  bacteria  with  diagnosis  by 
staining,  so  did  not  study  this  milk  microscopically,  but  determined  to  visit  the 
herd  and  test  it  with  tuberculin  first.  I had  hitherto  supposed  that  Trjntje’s  milk 
received  its  characters  from  the  presence  of  tubercle  in  her  udder,  but  after  investi- 
gating this  herd  I adopted  the  opinion  that  the  condition  of  Tryntje’s  milk  was  due 
to  garget,  and  not  to  tubercle.  The  correctness  of  this  view  would  be  somewhat 
shaken  should  microscopic  examination  of  Tryntje’s  udder  show  that  tuberculous 
lesions  were  present  only  on  the  right  side.  At  this  date  this  conclusion  was  not 
fully  matured,  and  I expected  to  find  evidence  of  tuberculosis  in  the  VandrufF  herd. 

January  6th.  Asked  Mr.  Jones  to  retake  the  temperatures  of  cows  11,  68,  244,  4, 
16  and  71  without  injection.  This  was  done  January  9th,  and  repeated  January 
10th,  making  two  records  for  each  cow. 

January  12th.  Held  autopsies  on  cows  15,  13,  39  and  77,  being  Cases  27,  17,  23 
and  15,  respectively,  Dr.  Loblein  directing. 

Tag  15,  Case  27.  Lungs  were  sound,  anterior  and  posterior  mediastinal  glands 
tuberculous,  liver  friable.  (1)  Inguinal  gland.  (2)  Right  hind  quarter  of  udder. 

Tag  13,  Case  17.  Large  tubercles  in  left  lung,  bronchi  filled,  mediastinal  glands 
tuberculous,  liver  leaden  and  friable.  (6)  Left  front  quarter  of  udder.  (7)  Left 
hind  ditto.  (9)  Right  front  ditto.  (10)  Right  hind  ditto. 

Tag  39,  Case  23.  Posterior  lobe  of  right  lung  has  large  tubercle ; many  small 
tubercles  attached  to  pleural  membrane  of  luDgs,  of  which  (4)  is  sample.  Small 
tubercles  on  and  in  left  lung.  Mediastinal  glands  decidedly  tuberculous,  liver 
leadeD,  friable  and  with  its  surface  covered  with  small  tubercles.  Surface  of  intes- 
tine covered  with  miliary  tubercles.  (3)  Left  front  quarter  of  udder.  Eight 
months’  foetus  present.  (40)  Thymus  of  foetus. 

Tag  77,  Case  15.  Miliary  tubercles  on  intestines,  liver  leaden  and  friable,  medias- 
tinal glands  with  incipient  small  tubercles,  lungs  apparently  sound.  (35)  Inguinal 
gland.  (36)  Right  front  quarter  of  udder.  (37)  Left  front  ditto  (38)  Right  hind 
ditto.  (39)  Left  hind  ditto. 

Inspected  the  VandrufF  herd,  thirteen  animals  Six,  on  physical  examination, 
were  supposably  sound.  Eight  were  chosen  for  injection  at  9 p.  m.,  each  with  50 
minims  tuberculin.  The  herd  seems  to  have  been  invaded  by  a disease,  either  con- 
tagious or  due  to  conditions  affecting  all,  or  nearly  all,  the  cattle  alike.  Swellings 
had  appeared  at  the  joints  of  the  legs,  the  coat  was  rough,  considerable  coughing 
was  heard,  one  or  more  of  the  quarters  of  the  udders  had  swollen  and  the  milk  had 
become  wheyey,  with  clots.  In  fact,  the  symptoms  of  garget  were  typically  exhibited, 
together  with  pneumonic  troubles.  The  disease  had  come  and  subsided  in  some  of 
the  cases,  and  at  times  re-appeared.  The  attack  had  begun  with  the  advent  of  cold 


24 


weather.  One  animal,  sick  in  November,  had  been  purged  and  was  found  dead  next 
morning.  This  was  dug  up  and  an  examination  of  its  lungs  made,  January  13th,  3 
p.  m.  These  organs  were  in  a highly-inflamed  and  congested  condition,  being  dark 
purple  in  color,  but  showed  no  lesions  of  a tubercular  nature.  In  detail,  the  animals 
injected  were  as  follows : Black  heifer,  sound  ; range,  2.5°.  Jumbo,  left  front  quarter 
first  affected  two  months  before ; still  somewhat  hard,  but  milk  all  right  again ; on 
auscultation,  heard  slight  murmur ; range,  1.2°.  Yellow  heifer,  left  hind  quarter  of 
udder  began  to  show  signs  of  disease  December  22d ; the  swelling  has  disappeared 
from  the  legs ; the  left  hind  quarter  of  udder  is  still  hard  ; no  especial  sounds  heard  on 
auscultation  ; range,  1.4°.  Gray  heifer,  left  front  and  left  hind  quarters  of  udder  have 
been  affected  six  weeks ; legs  had  been  swollen  and  bowels  loose ; slight  murmurs 
heard  on  right  side  ; range,  1.6°.  Ollie  is  lean,  coughs  a good  deal,  muzzle  ‘ sweats ; ” 
entire  udder  enormously  swollen  and  hard ; cow  lies  down  a great  deal ; legs  not 
swollen,  hair  rough ; initial  temperature,  103.2°,  is  highest ; range,  1.2° ; samples  of 
milk  secured;  respiratory  murmurs  very  strong;  evident  lung  trouble;  record  re- 
sembles that  of  Tryntje,  and  many  physical  signs  seem  to  point  to  same  conclusion ; 
nevertheless,  did  not  diagnose  a case  of  tuberculosis,  owing  to  the  records  shown  by 
other  cows  and  the  evidence  for  garget  and  pneumonia.  I reasoned  that  probably 
one  affection  was  present.  The  absence  of  tubercular  reactions  from  the  other  sick 
members  as  well  as  from  Ollie,  shows  that  tuberculosis  is  not  present  in  the  herd, 
for  if  present,  the  likelihood  would  be  that  all  cows  would  have  it  and  some  reaction 
would  be  shown.  Hence,  the  high  initial  temperature  of  Ollie  points  to  the  presence 
of  a disease  other  than  tuberculosis.  Brown  cow,  whole  udder  swollen ; right  hind 
quarter  hard,  pressure  causes  shrinking ; left  horn  is  warmer  than  right ; left  hock  is 
swollen  and  painful ; range,  0.2°.  Star  cow,  right  side  and  left  hind  quarter  of  udder 
swollen  and  hard;  respiratory  soughing  heard;  range,  2.1°;  the  initial  temperature, 
102,1,  is  highest.  Brindle,  was  very  bad,  but  now  the  milk  is  coming  down ; the  legs 
were  sore  and  swollen  ; now  much  better ; range,  0.8°. 

The  temperatures  of  these  cows  were  taken  at  9 to  10  in  the  evening,  before  injec- 
tion, again  at  6 in  the  morning,  at  9:30  A.  m.,  at  2:30  p.  m.  and  at  4 p.  m.  (See  Table 
XVI.,  at  close  of  this  report.) 

In  February,  a letter  from  Mr.  Vandruff  tells  us  that  there  has  been  slow  improve- 
ment and  only  in  case  there  is  a decided  change  for  the  worse  will  he  consent  to  have 
a cow  killed,  without  compensation,  by  the  National  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry, 
which  has  become  interested  in  the  case  through  notice  given  by  Dr.  Hunt,  Secretary 
of  the  New  Jersey  State  Board  of  Health. 

January  15th.  Held  autopsy  on  cow  6.  Case  No.  39.  Left  lung,  anterior  lobe,  has 
a large  tubercle.  (1 ) Small  tubercles  on  ventral  lobe  of  right  lung ; liver  leaden,  friable 
with  tubercles  on  surface  and  within  it.  Mediastinal  glands  greatly  enlarged  and 
tuberculous;  numerous  miliary  tubercles  on  small  intestines.  (41)  Right  front  quar- 
ter of  udder.  (43)  Left  front  ditto.  (44)  Right  hind  ditto.  (45)  Left  hind  ditto.  (5) 
Small  intestine. 

Fillpail’s  calf  (Case  5)  autopsied  in  the  afternoon,  shows  no  macroscopic  lesions  of 
tubercle.  (11)  Glands  from  ileum  near  ileo-colic  valves.  (12)  Thymus.  (13)  Pos- 
terior mediastinal  gland.  (14)  Anterior  mediastinal  gland.  (15)  Encysted  blood 
clot(?)  on  stomach.  Also  a dark  lymph  gland  from  liver  preserved. 

January  16th.  Autopsied  cows  51,  8,  5 and  71,  i.  e.  Cases  40,  19,  18  and  36.  Dr. 
Loblein,  examiner. 


25 


Cow  51,  Case  40.  Several  incipient  tuberc’es  fc  und  on  all  three  lol  es  of  left  lung; 
mediastinal  glands  apparently  sound,  liver  slightly  leaden.  (68)  White  spot  on 
liver.  (55)  Posterior  mediastinal  gland.  (64)  Lung.  (56)  Mesenteric  gland,  also  (o). 
(70)  Peyer’s  patch. 

Cow  8,  Case  19.  Left  lung  with  incipient  tubercles,  right,  marbled,  pneumonic;  pos- 
terior mediastinal  glands  tuberculous,  yellowish  green;  liver  apparently  sound  ; five 
months’ foetus  present.  (28)  Small  intestine.  (51)  Left  front  quarter  of  udder.  (59) 
Left  hind  ditto.  (63)  Right  hind  ditto.  (66)  Right  front  ditto. 

Cow  5,  Case  18.  Congested  area  on  right  lung,  posterior  mediastinal  glands  tuber- 
culous, right  side  of  udder  at  base,  tuberculous ; miliary  tubercles  on  intestine  and 
liver;  seven  months’ foetus  present.  (71)  Inguinal  gland.  (27)  Left  hind  quarter 
of  udder.  (61)  Left  front  ditto.  (50)  Right  hind  ditto.  (52)  Right  front  ditto.  (23) 
Thymus  of  foetus. 

Cow  71,  Case  36.  Inflammations  and  miliary  tubercles  on  pleura  of  libs,  left  side; 
mediastinal  glands  extremely  hypertrophied,  with  tuberculous  deposits;  large  tubercles 
on  superior  part  of  anterior  lobe,  right  lung,  while  posterior  lobe  of  same  side  presents 
gangrenous  and  congested  condition,  with  miliary  tubercles;  left  lung  more  tuber- 
culous than  the  right;  pancreas  appeared  abnormal;  liver  is  tuberculous,  and  some 
miliary  tubercles  present  on  the  intestine ; three  months’  foetus  present.  (60)  Pan- 
creas. (17)  Left  hind  quarter  of  udder.  (58)  Left  front  quarter.  (21)  Right  hind 
ditto.  (19)  Right  front  ditto. 

January  20th.  Autopsies  of  cows  9,  12  and  16,  Cases  Nos.  14,  12  and  28,  Dr, 
Loblein  assisting. 

Cow  12,  Case  12.  Posterior  mediastinal  glands  tuberculous;  anteiior  apparently 
absent  or  rudimentary;  lungs  apparently  sound ; liver  leaden,  has  large  tubercles;, 
ovaries  abnormal ; miliary  tubercles  on  intestine.  (53)  Left  ovary.  (16)  Right  hind 
quarter  of  udder.  (83)  Left  hind  ditto.  (88)  Right  front  ditto.  (91)  Left  front 
ditto.  (62)  Bronchial  gland. 

Cow  9,  Case  14.  Posterior  lobe  of  left  lung  very  tuberculous;  liver  apparently 
healthy ; miliary  tubercles  on  small  intestine ; left  ovary  abnormal ; mediastinal 
glands  rudimentary;  apparently  garget-like  condition  in  left  hind  quarter  of  udder. 
(20)  Left  hind  quarter.  (84)  Left  front  ditto.  (22)  Right  front  ditto.  (87)  Right 
hind  ditto.  (26)  Left  ovary.  (25)  Small  intestine. 

Cow  16,  Case  28.  Posterior  mediastinal  glands  tuberculous,  and  one  broken  down 
in  center  to  fluid  condition ; spot  on  lung  congested  and  gangrenous ; pimples 
(miliary  tubercles?)  on  colon  ; abnormal  growth  on  left  ovary.  (33)  Udder.  (86) 
Broken-down  mediastinal  gland.  (57)  Posterior  mediastinal  gland.  (89)  Congested 
pait  of  lung.  (18)  Lymphatic  gland  from  stomach.  (32)  Tubercle  pimple  from 
colon.  (65)  Small  intestine,  with  pimples.  (69)  Colon,  with  pimples.  (54)  Left 
ovary.  (29)  Upper  part  of  Fallopian  tube. 

January  22d.  Autopsies  held  on  cows  68, 244,  56  and  4,  Cases  20,  21,  32  and  25. 

Cow  68,  Case  20.  Lungs  sound,  bronchial  glands  tuberculous,  miliary  tubercles  on 
intestine.  (94)  Right  front  quarter  of  udder.  (115)  Right  hind  ditto.  (103)  Left 
hind  ditto.  (82)  Left  front  ditto.  (104)  Bronchial  gland.  (24)  Left  ovary.  (98) 
Right  ovary. 

Cow  244,  Case  21.  Posterior  cephalic  lobe  of  right  lung  one  mass  of  small  tuber- 
cles; posterior  mediastinal  glands  tuberculous.  (110)  Right  hind  quarter  of  udder. 
(92)  Right  front  ditto.  (113)  Left  hind  ditto.  (106)  Left  front  ditto.  (107)  In- 
guinal gland.  (96)  Left  ovary.  (85)  Right  ovary. 

4 


26 


Cow  56,  Case  32.  Large  tubercles  on  principal  lobe  of  left  lung ; bronchial  and 
mediastinal  glands  highly  tuberculous;  tuberculous  (?)  papillae  on  intestine;  left 
ovary  bears  papillae  that  require  investigation ; very  large  tubercle  in  dorsal  medias- 
tinum, near  diaphragm.  (Ill)  Inguinal  gland.  (67)  Left  front  quarter  of  udder. 
(101)  Left  hind  ditto.  (109)  Right  front  ditto.  (80)  Right  hind  ditto.  (93)  Intes- 
tinal papilla.  (31)  Left  ovary.  (102)  Right  ovary. 

Cow  4,  Case  25.  Very  fat ; inguinal  glands  perhaps  abnormal ; dorsal  mediastinal 
glands  very  tuberculous  ; right  lung  a mass  of  small  tubercles  ; liver  abnormally  soft 
and  leaden ; miliary  tubercles  on  intestine ; twin  foetuses  present  in  uterus.  (105) 
Left  hind  quarter  of  udder.  (114)  Left  front  ditto.  (112)  Right  front  ditto.  (108) 
Right  hind  ditto.  (97)  Inguinal  gland.  (81)  Intestine.  (100)  Right  ovary. 
(99)  Left  ovary. 

February  5th.  Autopsy  of  cow  11  (Case  16)  imperfect,  due  to  ignorance  of 
butcher,  who  failed  to  keep  the  parts  most  needed  for  examination ; no  responsible 
parties  being  present  during  the  slaughter.  The  butcher  reported  pleural  adhesions 
of  lung  walls.  A portion  of  lungs  recovered  failed  to  show  macroscopic  tuberculous 
lesions.  (A)  Bronchial  gland.  (AA)  Part  of  lung. 

February  6th.  Writer  and  Mr.  Jones  present  during  slaughter  of  cow  75  (Case  13). 
Principal  lobe  of  right  lung  showed  large  tubercles  (size  of  a fist) ; mediastinal  glands 
tuberculous,  inguinal  glands  enlarged ; no  macroscopic  tuberculous  lesions  seen  on 
section.  (B)  Left  hind  quarter  of  udder.  (C)  Inguinal  gland.  (D)  Small  bronchial 
gland. 

February  8th.  Lungs  and  inguinal  glands  of  cow  17  (Case  26)  were  brought  to 
the  laboratory  by  Mr.  E.  A.  Jones.  He  reported  that  he  saw  no  tubercles  on  the 
intestines.  Examination  of  material  brought  showed  inguinal  glands  rather  larger 
than  normal,  but  on  section  no  tuberculous  lesions  visible ; lungs  were  apparently 
sound.  Samples  preserved  were  marked  XVII. 

February  15th.  Dr.  Loblein  injected  52  and  53  (Cases  42  and  43),  the  results 
plainly  showing  a reaction  with  52  and  a doubtful  reaction  with  53. 

February  24th.  Lungs  of  52  (Case  42)  and  liver  and  lungs  of  2 (Case  8)  left  by 
Mr.  Jones  to  be  examined  at  the  laboratory ; animals  killed  the  day  before. 

Cow  2 (Case  8)  showed  extreme  tuberculosis  of  the  brochial  glands ; milk  taken, 
but  udder  was  thrown  away.  Liver  congested  and  with  incipient  tubercles.  (2a) 
Liver.* 

Case  42.  Mr.  Jones  reported  that  the  lungs  and  intestines  had  been  examined  by 
him  and  no  lesions  discoverable.  Dr.  Loblein  joined  me  in  examination  of  these 
lungs.  Near  the  surface  were  local  areas  of  superficial  inflammation,  in  which  were 
very  small  tubercles,  with  cheesy  deposits  in  their  centers.  The  bronchial  glands 
presented  small  pus  (?)  cavities  within.  (52a)  Lung  tissue.  (52 b)  Bronchial  gland. 
Samples  for  desiccation  also  taken. 

February  28th.  Mr.  Jones  brought  portions  of  intestine,  udder,  liver  and  lungs 
of  55  (Case  24)  to  the  laboratory.  On  posterior  part  of  main  lobe  of  right  lung,  a 
spherical  tubercle  of  the  size  of  a hazelnut  was  found,  otherwise  the  lungs  appeared 
sound ; liver  was  peculiarly  pitted,  otherwise  tuberculous  lesions  appeared  absent ; 
the  intestines  were  well  covered  with  miliary  tubercles  the  size  of  small  peas  and 
caseous  in  center.  Samples  preserved. 


27 


§ 4.  Summaries  of  Data , Tables  and  Discussion  of  Same. 

Milk  has  been  preserved  from  the  four  teats,  separately,  in  the 
•cases  of  cows  66,  77,  [Ollie,  yellow  heifer,  brown  heifer  and  Jumbo, 
of  Vandruff  herd],  6,  8,  71,  5,  14,  20,  9,  30,  25,  22,  23,  56,  4,  68, 
244,  2 and  55,  or  more  than  twenty  cases. 

Foetuses  have  been  found  in  cows  73,  39,  8,  5,  71,  4,  and  Tryntje 
and  Fillpail  also  had  each  a calf  that  were  used  in  feeding  experi- 
ments. 

Excluding  the  bull  and  a cow  sold  early  in  the  season  of  experi- 
mentation and  including  the  tuberculous  cow  slaughtered  early  in 
August,  and  the  heifers  and  calves,  43  animals  are  to  be  counted  as 
included  in  this  investigation,  and  of  these,  28  animals  have  been 
under  autopsy,  in  which  two  calves  and  two  cows  did  not  show  macro- 
scopic tuberculous  lesions  and  are  therefore  still  in  doubt ; the  others 
were  decidedly  tuberculous.  The  temperature  records  of  the  calves 
and  the  doubtful  cows  are  in  themselves  not  decisive,  although  run- 
ning as  high  as  some  cases  showing  decided  tuberculosis,  but  every 
case  of  undoubted  reaction  proved  to  be  undoubtedly  tuberculous, 
whether  diagnosed  “ suspicious  ” or  as  “O.  K.”  by  physical  examina- 
tion. These  and  other  facts  become  more  strikingly  apparent  from 
inspection  of  the  succeeding  tables. 


College  Farm  Herd,  Injected  December  29th  and  January  2d,  1893-94. 


28 


•ainiuiaduiax 
umnnx'Bft  jo  aanj, 

8 p.  m. 
12  m. 

5 a.  m. 
12  m. 

5 am. 
10  p.  m. 

6 p.  m. 

1 p.  m. 

4 p.  m. 

4 pm. 
6:30  p.  m.. 
1 p.  m. 

4 p.  m. 

6 a.  m. 

1 p.  m. 

1 p.  m. 

6 a.  m. 
4:30  p.  m. 

5 p.  ni, 

•amvBjadutax 
umtmxBj\[  oj  auttx 

£©  CO  00  OO  CM  ^ ©00<N  CM©00^>CMOO  00  CM  CM  CM 

£ rH  t-H  iH  HW  <N  rtCIHH  HrlN  ^ 

•ampsiaduiax  umunxBj\[ 

103.35 

104.8 

106.3 
106.0 
101.6 
102.0 

101.8 

103.1 
102  6 

102.6 

102.4 

105.2 

103.4 

105.4 

105.3 

103.6 

106.5 
106.2 

1054 

amjBiadutax 
XBijiui  xnojj  osiy 

CM  CM  OO  CO  © CM  CO  ^ © rH  nj<  CM  © T*  i-h  CM  CO  CM  CM- 

rH  CM  CO  CO  rH  © r-i  CO  CM  ©TjilOCMCO^*  CO©©  lO 

1 1 1 

•oSubh 

CM  CM  CO  © 0O  ^ OO  H ^ CM  rj« -H*  l>  CM  CO  TfJ  C> 

rH  CM  CO  CO  CM  © rH  CO  CO  CM  CO  r*1*  lO  © © l6 

24  hours. 
Period 
VIII. 

•ui  d i-9 
•smoq  QZ-fZ 

6 p.  m. 
105.8° 

6:30  p.  m 
100.5 

101.7 
100.0 

101.8 
100.8 

104.2 
101.8 

101.2 

103.3 

103.4 
105.2 
105.0 

7:30  p.  m. 
1Q3.5 

21  hours. 
Period 
VII. 

•ui d f-z 
•smoq  ZZ-QZ 

4 p.  m 
103.6° 

103.3 

3:30  p.  m. 
105.0 
4 p.  m. 
103.6 

4 p.  m. 
101.1 

102.4 
102.6 

102.6 

100.0 

105.2 

103.4 

101.5 

104.0 

102.0 
105.0 

106.2 

5 p.  m. 
105-4 

18  hours. 
Period 
VI. 

•ui  -d  z-Zl 
•smoq  61-81 

11:30  a.  m. 
102.0° 
12  m. 
104.8 

103.0 

106.0 
1045 

1 p.  m. 

100.7 

103.1 

101.4 

100.2 
99.6 

105.2 

102.7 

103.7 

105.3 

103.6 

105.5 
105.0 

2 p.  m. 

104.6 

15  hours. 
Period 

V. 

•ut  *B  it -i 
•smoq  81-SI 

7:15  a.  m. 
101.2° 
7:15  a.  m. 

104.0 
7:30  a.  m. 
105.8 

8 a.  m. 
105.8 

9 a.  m. 
104.0 

9 a.  m. 

101.4 
102.6 
101.0 

102.0 

101.0 

104.6 

101.6 

104.5 

105.2 

101.2 
106.0 
104.9 

10  a.  m. 
104.8 

12  hours. 
Period 
IV. 

•ut  ”8  i~q 
•smoq  81-ix 

5 a.  m. 
102.2° 
5 a.  m. 

103.2 

106.3 

101.4 
104.6 

5:30  a.  m. 
101.8 

100.0 

100.8 

101.0 

101.8 

99.8 

104.6 
100.8 

105.4 

103.6 

100.4 

106.5 

103.2 

6:30  a.  m. 

101.3 

9 hours. 
Period 
III. 

•ut  -b  f-z 
smoq  u-8 

3 a.  m. 
102.2° 
2 a.  m. 

103.2 

106.3 
105.0 
104.2 
101.6 

6 hours. 
Period 
II. 

•ui  -b  z~Zl 
smoq  8-S 

12:30  p.  m. 
103.2° 

1 a.  m. 
101.0 
100.0 
100.0 

101.2 

98.0 

100.8 

100.0 

101.8 

100.6 

98.4 

101.8 

101.8 

2 a.  m. 
100.4 

3 hours. 
Period 
I. 

ui  d oi-8 
smoq  f~z 

10  p m. 

103.1° 
8:15  p.  m. 
102.8 

8.55  p.  m. 
103  4 

8 p.  m. 

103.4 

9 p.  m. 
101.8 

10  p.  m. 
102  0 

9 p.  m. 
101.2 
100.8 

99.2 

101.4 
100.6 
101.2 
100.2 
101.0 
100.6 

101.6 

101.0 

99.8 

10  p.  m 
100.6 

< 

« w 
H 2 

w 2 
05  2 
o 3 

w s 
a ^ 

H 

•ut  d 8*S 
amj 

-Biadutax  iBiqui 

8 p.  m. 

103.35° 
6 p.  m. 
102  6 
6:30  p.  m. 

102.5 

5 p.  m. 

102.4 
5:30  p.  m. 

103.0 

6 pm. 

101.8 
6:15  p.  m. 
101.8 

100.0 

100.6 
6:30  p.  m. 

102.2 

102.4 
100.0 

101.4 

302.0 
101.2 

7 p.  m. 

100.4 
100.2 

100.0 
7:15  p.  m. 

100.2 

sramiH— asocr 

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Not  under  influence  of  injection. 


29 


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30 


EXPLANATION  OF  TABLE  I. 

The  eight  periods  of  three  hours  each  cover  the  night  and  day,, 
twenty-four  hours  in  all ; but,  of  course,  it  was  impossible  to  inject 
and  to  observe  all  the  cows  simultaneously,  so  that  there  is  some  de- 
parture from  fixed  hours.  The  earlier  cases  were  not  observed  with 
the  regularity  of  the  later  ones.  Cases  42  to  50  were  injected  by  Dr. 
E.  L.  Loblein,  the  last  eight  cases  being  the  new  cows  added  to  the 
herd  to  date  of  beginning  work  on  this  report.  Case  9 ii  is  case  9 in- 
jected a second  time.  Case  5 a properly  belongs  to  Table  III.,  but  does 
not  fit  into  its  period  so  well  as  here.  Dotted  lines  represent  absence 
of  observation.  The  column  headed  “ rise  from  initial  temperature  n 
is  the  “ approximate  reaction  ” as  usuaily  calculated.  When  a minus 
sign  precedes  a number  in  this  column  it  represents  a fall  from  initial 
evening  temperature,  calculation  being  made  to  the  lowest  record ; thus 
the  range  and  negative  reaction  are  the  same.  For  dates  of  injection 
see  later  tables. 


TABLE  II. 

Showing  College  Herd,  With  Data  From  Autopsies,  Etc. 


31 


Result  of  Autopsy. 

1 OOlNOiH^ 

•sisoinojeqnx  I*?ox  p*  01  ^ 

i>  : : 

ABDOMEN. 

•o?3  | 50 

rH  <N  ; 

CO 

cm  : : jco  : 

: j • **"  lw 

‘sonijsajui  ^r-1  ^ ^ 

tji  ^ : : tp  : tp  : 

t*  id  ^ : : co 

•lOAri 

■<*03  : 

in  : : 

T*< 

OW  ;M^O  j ; 

ec iH (M  ico 

THORAX 

•SpUBJO 

io  : : 

CO  CO  © CM  i ^ CO  CO  CO  CO 

t*  : io  : ^ tp 

'Binojj 
puB  sSanq; 

^ : © © : 
cm  :rH  : 

«"  1 j 

OiOO^^HMO^ 

afjioooH 

•ss30xa  fBnnxuH  jsoqSiH 

^ CM  CO  ^ CO 
ri*  CO  ^ Tji*  CM* . 

tOCMT^t^©iO©OOOtO 
CO  rH  CO  CO  CM  lO  TP  CO  CM  CO 

OM'  <33  50  00 
rfi  ’ <N  CS  .-H 

qsoj,  qoos  j£q  sisouSbiq; 

Probably  Tuberc... 
Rpfl.nt.inn 

Tuberc 

Tuberc 

Reaction 

O K 

Probably  Tuberc... 
Possibly  Tuberc.  (?) 
Possibly  0.  K.  (?) ... 
Prohablv  O.  K 

Tuberc 

Probably  Tuberc... 

Tuberc 

Tuberc 

Probably  Tuberc... 

Tuberc 

Tuberc 

Tuberc 

Tnherc 

Tuberc 

O K 

Tuberc 

Probably  Tuberc... 

Tuberc 

Probably  Tuberc. ... 

Tuberc 

Tuberc 

L 

i , 

IC 

Probably  0.  K 

0.  K 

•UOHOBOa  IB^Oi  ispot; 

C©  t>  CM  CM  : 05  t-I  rH  1 

CM  ^ CO  : ; 

:05!>©iOiO’*fiCOOOOOQO©©'^OOOOiO© 
: to  CO  ^ OOI>IO  CM  l>  t'*  CO  cc  to  CM 

■noijBniTU'Bxa; 
IBOisTqj  jo  'unsay; 

Tuberc 

O.  K 

Tuberc 

Tuberc 

O.  K 

Suspected... 

0.  K 

Suspected .. 

0.  K 

0.  K 

Suspected... 

Suspected  .. 

Doubt 

Suspected... 
Suspected .. 

O.  K 

Tuberc 

f>  K 

Tuberc 

O K 

33  J’O  : : 
u : <y  ; : 

: gW  & :w 

O k 

;PPO co  :d 

Ky 

C 

0.  K 

0.  K 

•miB.j  j'B  Shot;  ayoh 

2 yrs.  4 mos... 

1 mo 

2 yrs.  8 mos... 

2 yrs 

9 weeks 

2 yrs.  2 mos... 
2 yrs.  1 mo.... 
2 yrs  8 mos... 
2 yrs.  6 mos... 
2 yrs.  11  mos.. 
2 yrs.  2 mos... 
2 yrs  9 mos... 
1 vr.  2 mos 

2 yrs  2 mos... 
2 yrs.  3 mos... 

1 yr.  3 mos 

2 yrs 

1 yr.  11  mos... 

2 yrs.  9 mos... 
2 yrs  1 mo  ... 
2 yrs.  9 mos... 
2 yrs.  11  mos.. 
2 yrs.  6 mos... 
2 yrs  4 mos... 
1 yr.  11  mos... 

1 

> 

1 

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ia 

2 yrs.  11  mos..] 
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9 yrs 

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10  yrs 

2 yrs 

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13  yrs 

7 yrs 

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12  yrs 

12  vrs  

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7 yrs 

10  yrs 

6 yrs 

9 yrs 

6 yrs 

8 vrs  

9 yrs 

2 vrs 

9 yrs 

7 vrs 

9 yrs 

2 yrs.  4 mos... 
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6 yrs 

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Holstein 

Jersey  Holstein... 

Holstein 

Shorthorn 

Jersey  Holstein... 

Ayrshire  

Holstein 

Holstein 

Shorthorn 

Holstein 

Holstein 

Ayrshire 

Shorthorn 

Shorthorn 

Jersey 

Guernsey 

Holstein 

Shorthorn  tirade 

Holstein 

Native 

Jersey 

Shorthorn 

Holstein 

i 

12 

\s 

Grade  Holstein... 
[Native 

NAME  OF  ANIMAL. 

Tryntje  No.  2 

Trvnt.ie’s  Calf 

Maria  Starr j 

Marion  Perkins 

Fillpail’s  Calf. 

Mary  Gold 

Woodland  Caphea 

Edith  Thompson 

Fillpail 

Chine 

> 

£ 

s 

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Kitty  Clay  2d 1 

Chautauqua  Bell 1 

Lily  Champion 

Bertha  Hadley 

Ada  Neilson 

Winifred 

Miss  Thompson 

Rena 

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Kittv  Clay  3d 

Hulda  Chloe 

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tOl>  : HHtOnh*  t>*rHiH  tO  ^ l>  CO  lO  HHHtOOlO 

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32 


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Result  of  Autopsy. 

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* No  tag. 


33 


EXPLANATION  OF  TABLE  II. 

This  table  gives  tag  and  name,  the  breed  and  age  of  the  cows  in 
the  herd.  The  column  headed  “ source  ” gives  the  initials  of  the  man 
from  whom  the  cows  were  bought,  the  locality  of  his  residence  being 
reserved  for  later  tables.  The  next  column  shows  how  long  the  cows 
have  been  at  the  College  farm,  then  follow  the  results  of  physical 
examination. 

The  succeeding  columns  were  calculated  from  the  temperature 
figures  and  the  autopsies.  The  first  three  columns  have  been  borrowed 
from  tables  to  be  hereafter  discussed,  and  need  not  now  receive  further 
attention;  the  columns  under  “ result  of  autopsy”  were  calculated 
as  follows  : 

0=no  tubercle. 

l=suspected  microscopical  tuberculosis. 

2=incipient  tuberculosis. 

3=several  small  or  few  large  tubercles. 

4=miliary  tuberculosis,  many  large,  or  very  many  small  tubercles. 

5= thoroughly- advanced  tuberculosis  of  an  organ,  seriously  injuring 
its  functions 

6=extreme  tuberculosis ; on  the  verge  of  death. 

Each  lung  and  each  pleuron  counted  as  a separate  organ,  the  thoracic 
lymphatic  glands,  the  liver,  the  intestinal  canal  and  mesenteries,  spleen, 
caul,  etc.,  and  finally  the  ovaries,  kidneys,  etc.,  each  received  counts 
by  itself— judged  on  the  above  scale — and  the  sum  is  the  “ total  tuber- 
culosis ” — necessarily  rough,  and  not  so  valuable  as  if  we  had  given 
the  values  at  the  time  of  autopsy,  this  evaluation  will  still  help  to 
give  indications  of  a general  nature  in  succeeding  studies. 

5 


TABLE  III. 

Temperatures  of  Tuberculous  Cows  After  Influence  of  Tuberculin  Has  Ceased. 


34 


•apiaqnj,  jo  lunoniv  | 

: : t>  : 

8 

L 

01 

96 

11 

91 

L 

TIIA  pouaj  uiojj  8sih  | 

«ooqeor-<i«eoeo<o05-IoDooto^;i-i^H-H^H^iftc<no  i 

(NOHHdo'odd'Sdfio  cjd'S'S’So'ddo  : 
| fe  fcPufc 

•ajtuBjeduiax 
tnmnix'BK  jo  atmx 

a a a a a a a a g a a a a a a a a a g g a a ; 

« p,  o3  (i,  oj  o3  oj  <S  <N  fi  «8  08  «3  P.  ft  ft  ft  ft  to  <N  aj  o3  : 

os  n«  os  to  os  os  os  os ,_l  to  os  os  os  to  to  to 1-1  r"H  to  os  • 

•aim 

-madniax  xntunix'BK 

100.6 

101.0 

co  © oi  os > ■*»  i-j  in  os  o ao  os  o i>  eo  © ^ t>  iq  oo  to  : 

§ S § § ^ : 

•sSubh 

!OOMH>»iOH05050«OOOn<0>tOUiWMMto  • 
<n‘  rt  fi  h o o’  o h o o h d o'  h h ri  o h d r4  rA  rA  ; 

•in  -dg 
TIIA  poiJ9d 

o«ooixoHiocoo5Cioeooo«o^!Ootoo  : 

•nt  *d  f 
TIA  poiiaj 

tooioootoi>05oaoto05i>coini>05oc<it^iot^o  ' 

™zi  1 
TA  P0TI9J  1 

1 

, 

!8 

I 

100.4 
99.9 

100.5 

co  • oa  : Tf  2 oo  : 

§ j§  I|  ji  i 

•nr  n 6 
*A  po  laax 

to<Neoo5C^05Tj<r^oi>;ooqo5i>e<5'«#i>otoaoiqtq  j 

SSoSoSoooS 08 o" o' 3 o § o S o *' S j 

•m  "8  og:Q 
•AI  POII8J 

99.5 
100.0 
99.0 
100.6 
98.9 
i lni.o 

> Tf  T*  l-H  O O to  O O ■<*  TjH  TP  O 1>  01  00  t*  I 

§§||§lill’g|§||s’g’  i 

DATE. 

January  9 

“ in 

• • • 

• • • 

• J • 

• • • 

2*5 
• • • 

• • ! 

• • J 

) CO  TT  C5  c 
«<N<M  f- 

••••••••••••*•••• 

• • 

•••••••••••••••a, 

• • • • . ••••*•**•••* 

• • • • • 

5(^dcioa5da>dco^ccVco^co«i*  : 

i f-H  rH  r-t  HdCl  OUNd  • 

j ’8S80  jo  laqnmM 

I 8at)'8eae«8loe*5oeoeoe'oe'0  8 

* See  Table  I. 


TABLE  IV. 

Temperatures  of  Non-reacting  Cows  After  Influence  of  Tuberculin  Has  Ceased. 


35 


*IIIA  poua  j moij  asin 

0.3 

0.4 

0.2 

0.1 

Fall. 

Fall. 

0.6 

Fall. 

•amjBiadtnax 
umunxBK  jo  amix 

6 a.  m. 
9 a.  m. 
6 a.  m. 
9 am. 
6 p.  m. 
6 p.  m. 
4 p.  m. 
4 p.  in. 

•ainj 

-Bjadniax  nmnnxBK 

100.7 
101.2 
101.2 
101.9 

100.8 
100.7 
101.2 
101.0 

•aSuBg 

inionoot'Ot'ia 

ooodHHod 

•at  -d  9 
*IIIA  pouaj 

100.4 

100.8 

101.0 

101.8 

100.8 

100.7 

100.6 

101.0 

•in  *d  f 
*IIA  pouaj 

100.5 

101.0 

101.2 

101.3 

99.9 

102.2 

101.2 

101.0 

•in  zi 
*IA  pouaj 

<N  I>  © .H  ^ t>  ifi 

8§3S§ig§§ 

•in  "B  6 

•A  poxiaj 

100.5 

101.2 

101.2 

101.9 

100.0 

100.7 

100.8 
100.8 

•Hi  -B  os:g 
*AI  pouaj 

100.7 

100.9 

101.2 

101.6 

99.9 

100.0 

100.5 

100.5 

: 


: 


: : : ! 

3-  = = = = r = 
a 


•asBQ  jo  laqnmtf 


36 


EXPLANATION  OF  TABLES  III.  AND  IV. 

Table  III.  gives  the  temperatures  of  cases  at  first  considered  doubt- 
ful in  their  reaction,  taken  after  the  influence  of  the  injection  ha& 
ceased  and  for  two  days,  the  hours  chosen  being  those  at  which  the 
apparent  reaction  took  place.  By  comparison  with  the  corresponding 
temperatures  under  Table  I.,  we  can  gain  important  information  as  to 
the  presence  of  reaction.  As  will  be  seen,  reaction  took  place  in* 
every  case,  and  the  autopsies  justify  the  conclusion.  The  “approxi- 
mate reaction  ” (that  is,  the  difference  between  initial  evening  tem- 
perature and  the  maximum,  though,  of  course,  no  real  reaction  can  be 
present  in  absence  of  injection)  could  in  these  cases  be  calculated  from 
the  evening  temperature  at  close  of  day.  Of  course,  this  is  just  as 
allowable  as  to  use  the  temperature  of  the  evening  of  the  previous- 
day,  as  is  ordinarily  done.  It  could  be  used  in  tubercular  cases,  except 
that  the  reaction  often  lasts  over  into  the  night,  thus  disturbing  this 
temperature;  but,  as  a rule,  previous  observers  have  not  extended 
their  observations  to  the  second  evening.  Cases  9 and  10  of  Table  IV. 
seem  to  show  small  reaction,  and  have,  therefore,  been  included  with 
reacting  cases  in  subsequent  tables. 


Cases  Arranged  in  Order  of  Absolute  Height,  Giving  Class,  According  to  Koch  Test,  Based  on 

Height,  Apparent  Reaction  and  Range. 


37 


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! <24 

Cases  Arranged  in  Order  of  Absolute  Height,  Giving  Class,  According  to  Koch  Test,  Based  on 

Height,  Apparent  Reaction  and  Range. 


38 


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39 


EXPLANATION  OF  TABLE  V. 

After  the  perceding  tables  were  prepared  in  the  rough,  a chart  of 
temperature  curves  was  plotted  (Chart  I.),  from  which,  by  taking  the 
absolute  height  of  the  curves  as  a basis,  the  cases  were  arranged  as  in 
Table  V.,  in  the  order  of  the  maxima,  by  comparing  the  rise  above 
the  initial  temperature,  and  the  entire  range  of  the  temperatures  for 
maxima  between  102°  and  103°  (the  chart  apparently  showing  that 
everthing  above  103°  is  tuberculous),  I could  arrange  these  doubtful 
cases  in  sequence,  and  characterize  them  as  doubtful,  probably,  or 
possibly  tuberculous  or  O.  K.,  as  the  case  might  be.  So  little  has 
this  order  been  disturbed  by  introduction  of  a more  accurate  method 
of  determining  the  reaction  that  the  old  table  has  been  introduced 
here  without  change,  except  slight  new  choice  of  words,  and  that  the 
order  of  maxima  has  given  the  succession.  The  killing  has  been 
done  in  accordance  with  the  column  headed  “ diagnosis  by  the  Koch 
test,”  no  great  effort  being  made  to  take  up  the  cows  in  the  order  here 
given,  except  to  keep  to  the  order  of  the  groups,  “ decidedly,” 
“ evidently  ” and  “ probably,”  tag  6 excepted.  (The  “ possibly  ” and 
“ doubtful”  [9  and  43]  have  at  this  writing  not  yet  been  killed.)  This 
marks  the  limit,  so  long  as  cases  16  and  26  remain  doubtful  in  the 
autopsy.  The  last  column  shows  they  have  a very  low  total  reaction. 
They  will,  however,  receive  further  study,  and  may  yet  pay  the 
penalty. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  I ignored  the  ordinary  method  of  calculating 
the  reaction,  viz.,  by  taking  the  difference  between  the  initial  tempera- 
ture and  the  highest  later  observed  temperature.  Such  a procedure 
seemed  to  me  to  be  extremely  inaccurate,  but  careful  studies  of  my 
data  have  shown  that  this  method  is  not  so  bad  as  it  at  first  sight  ap- 
pears. I have,  therefore,  called  it  the  “ approximate  reaction.”  It  is 
easy  to  see  that  in  some  cases  it  is  too  great,  and  in  others  too  small, 
thus  the  cases  are  not  treated  alike,  and  it  is  impossible  to  grade  them 
in  proper  order.  Fortunately  the  majority  of  cases  react  so  markedly 
that  the  margin  of  inaccuracy  is  more  than  swallowed  up,  so  that  if 
the  operator  chooses  a sufficiently  high  reaction  as  his  limit,  he  has  no 
difficulty  in  showing  that  the  verdict  rendered  by  the  injection  of 
Koch’s  lymph  is  infallibly  justified  by  the  autopsy.  Practice  seems 
to  have  settled  on  this  limit  as  2.5°  above  initial  evening  temperature, 
experience  having  shown  that  to  take  a smaller  limit  is  apt  to  include 


40 


some  sound  animals  which  result  is  of  course  naturally  avoided ; but 
experience  has  equally  shown  (our  own  in  particular)  that  tuberculous 
animals  have  given  a smaller  “ approximate  reaction,”  and  thus  we 
may  be  certain  that  Koch’s  lymph  as  ordinarily  used  fails  to  stamp 
out  tuberculosis,  root  and  branch , from  large  herds.  I believe  that 
evidence  sufficient  has  been  accumulated  to  make  any  experimenter 
certain  that  every  reacting  animal  has  tubercle , but  the  trouble  lies  in 
determining  what  is  a reaction  in  certain  exceptional  instances.  Case  1 , 
the  most  tuberculous  of  all  our  herd,  gave  no  approximate  reaction, 
in  fact  it  resembled  the  healthy  cows  in  giving  the  uninfluenced 
maximal  temperature  at  evening ; though  to  be  sure  this  temperature 
was  relatively  high,  it  was  no  higher  than  dozens  of  normal  tempera- 
tures recorded  in  tables  by  other  observers,  such  as  those  recorded  by 
Dr.  Leonard  Pearson,  for  the  Pennsylvania  State  College  herd 
(Bulletin  21) ; Dr.  E.  P.  Niles,  for  the  Virginia  State  Station  herd 
(Bulletin  26) ; and  Dr.  Conrow,  for  the  Taylor  herd,  Burlington  N. 
J.  (Vet.  Mag.,  Jan.,  ’94).  Case  1 was,  however,  so  advanced  as  to 
make  error  of  physical  diagnosis  impossible;  but,  unfortunately, 
there  is  no  absolute  relation  between  amount  of  reaction  and  amount 
of  tuberculosis ; while  some  “ incipient  ” cases  give  an  extremely  high 
reaction,  others  give  low  and  doubtful  reactions.  It  is,  therefore, 
worth  while  to  study  into  this  matter  closely,  to  see  if  a more  equable 
reaction  determination  be  possible. 

Now,  what  causes  the  “ fever  reaction  ” — the  rise  of  temperature  ? 
Evidently  an  increased  oxidation,  accompanied  by  increased  activity 
in  the  tissue  cells,  due  to  increased  stimulation.  How  does  Koch’s 
lymph  secure  this  result?  The  subject  is  practically  a mystery.  The 
best  answer  yet  made  runs  somewhat  as  follows : The  lymph  is  an 
extract  of  tuberculous  tissue,  and  hence,  among  other  matters,  con- 
tains the  toxines  which  the  tubercle  bacilli  have  produced.  A small 
amount  of  these  toxines  is  readily  excreted  from  the  body  before  they 
can  produce  any  serious  effect  on  the  tissue  cells.  This  explains  why 
a small  dose  injected  into  a healthy  animal  produces  no  effect.  But 
if  the  tubercle  germs  have  been  for  some  time  at  work,  they  have 
manufactured  an  additional  amount  of  toxine  (or  ptomaine).  If  this 
amount  is  very  great,  the  small  amount  added  by  injection  increases 
this  amount  by  so  small  an  increment  as  to  be  unnoticed ; but  when 
the  ptomaine  in  the  tissues  is  less,  the  increment  is  noticeable.  Ac- 
cording to  this  explanation,  the  healthy  cow  receives  the  maximal 


41 


increment,  and  so  we  see  a fault  in  the  theory.  I would  offer  this 
amendment,  viz.,  the  presence  of  the  bacilli,  and  of  the  poisons  they 
excrete,  causes  an  increased  activity  of  the  tissues,  both  in  the  work  of 
getting  rid  of  the  poison  by  excretion  and  in  the  work  of  secreting 
toxalbumens  inimical  to  the  germ,  and  we  may  also  include  the  work 
of  producing  tubercle.  This  increased  work  is  so  little,  or  is  dis- 
tributed over  so  long  a time,  as  at  no  period  to  seriously  influence  the 
general  temperature  until  the  disease  has  reached  an  extreme  point. 
That  is,  there  is  always  a reaction  present  in  a tuberculous  animal , but 
usually  so  small  as  to  be  unnoticeable.  The  rate  at  which  the  bacilli 
secrete  the  toxine  is  so  uniform  as  not  to  present  any  special  breaks  or 
accessions  that  may  serve  as  stimuli,  but  the  injection  of  a quantity 
bearing  an  appreciable  relation  to  that  which  the  tissues  are  already 
responding  to,  is  such  a sudden  increment  that  the  tissues  respond  by 
a sudden  increase  in  the  work  they  are  already  engaged  in. 

The  tissues  of  a sound  animal  are  not  adjusted  to  take  any  special 
notice  of  a slight  and  temporary  accession  of  poison.  It  requires  the 
presence  of  this  slight  amount  for  such  protracted  periods  as  the 
bacilli  supply,  to  develop  this  sensibility  of  the  cells. 

It  follows  that  any  observed  temperature  is  a resultant  of  two  sets 
of  forces — first,  those  that  produce  the  normal  temperature,  or  the 
temperature  that  would  be  present  if  the  injection  lymph  were  absent ; 
second,  the  sensibility  of  the  tissues  to  the  particular  increment  of 
stimulus.  Both  this  sensibility  and  the  magnitude  of  this  increment 
are  unknown  quantities,  and  if  injection  be  made,  the  normal  curve  of 
temperature  for  all  the  time  the  lymph  is  acting  is,  of  course,  also 
unknown.  We  possess  simply  the  observed  temperature,  and  no  one 
is  competent  to  declare  how  much  of  this  temperature  is  " reaction.” 
That  is,  the  exact  amount  of  reaction  in  any  given  case  is,  on  a priori 
grounds,  absolutely  unknown  now,  and  perhaps  impossible  of  knowl- 
edge to  future  science. 

We  may,  however,  approximate  to  this  quantity  by  gaining  some 
idea  of  the  probable  normal  temperature  at  the  particular  time  the 
temperature  was  taken,  i.  e.  what  would  the  temperature  have  been 
if  injection  had  not  been  made? 

It  becomes  first  and  foremost  necessary  to  study  the  behavior  of 
temperature  curves  for  normal  cases.  This  work  we  did  not  at  first 
realize  the  importance  of,  so  that  the  data  herewith  presented  are  neces- 
sarily less  full  than  is  desirable.  We  may  include  as  “ normal  tern- 


42 


peratures”  all  those  temperatures,  of  cows  under  injection,  which 
manifestly  have  not  been  disturbed  by  injection,  viz.,  the  initial  tem- 
perature, and  all  subsequent  observations  up  to  the  point  where  the 
reaction  becomes  manifest.  As  our  injection  was  made  on  a falling 
thermometer,  such  point  of  reaction  is  in  the  majority  of  instances 
easily  discoverable.  There  is  a latent  period  after  injection,  before 
the  lymph  produces  its  effects.  As  to  the  law  of  this  latent  period 
we  refer  to  later  pages. 

Of  course,  the  entire  series  of  observations,  for  sound  cows  under 
injection,  becomes  available,  and  also  the  data  collected  in  Tables  III* 
and  IV. 


TABLE  VI. 

Showing  Relative  Distribution  of  Normal  Temperatures. 


43 


<£>  TfNOOO®^NOOO«^NqoO(O^NOOO(D^NO  o 

' * ’ ' —'o^  00  C-H 


•MOI 

■wiia 


•S8in^j9dm8x 


■Sn  'nSm  *8iPP*re  ’MOri 


RVLf;.— JLigast  concentration  of  temperatures  occurs  at  minimal  periods,  and  vice  versa , 


44 


EXPLANATION  OF  TABLE  VI. 

In  accordance  with  the  reasoning  just  presented,  these  data  of  normal 
temperatures  were  plotted  into  a table  shown  in  No.  VI.  The  tem- 
peratures on  each  side  (above  and  below)  99°  are  grouped  as  “ ultra- 
low,”  those  about  100°  as  “low,”  those  about  101°  as  “ middle,” 
those  about  102°  as  “ high,”  and  those  above  102.5°  as  “ ultra-high.” 
Only  the  even  tenths  are  presented.  All  readings  falling  on  odd 
tenths  have  been  shoved  up  one-tenth  of  a degree. 

Following  these  temperatures  are  the  figures  representing  the 
number  of  times  this  reading  was  presented  in  each  period.  The 
percentage  of  cases  for  each  group  was  calculated,  and  a study  of  the 
table  shows  that  neglecting  the  period  from  2:30  A.  M.  to  5 A.  M., 
called  “ foredawn,”  for  which  we  have  scarcely  any  readings,  the 
other  periods  present  three  columns  in  which  the  temperatures  range 
lowest,  two  in  which  they  range  highest  and  two  connecting,  “ middle  ” 
periods.  The  highest  maximal  and  the  lowest  minimal  periods  are 
numbered  “ 1 ” respectively,  and  fall  at  evening  and  at  morning 
respectively.  The  other  maximal  period  is  shortly  before  noon, 
which  is  itself  the  second  minimum  (minimum  No.  3,  coming  at  mid- 
night). At  the  top  of  the  columns  are  the  maximal  temperatures  for 
normal  cases,  so  that  any  cow  presenting  a higher  reading  at  these 
periods  than  these  maxima,  must  be  considered  “suspected.”  The 
“ minimum  ” periods  are  produced  by  a certain  number  of  cases  drop- 
ping, some  further  than  others,  and  the  maximal  periods  by  the 
reverse  process,  so  that  viewed  from  above  downwards,  the  maxima 
show  a much  better  concentration  of  the  temperatures  than  do  the 
minima,  but  all  these  periods  give  us  a range  of  four  degrees  or  more 
within  which  the  temperature  of  a cow  may  occur  and  still  be  normal. 

But  this  is  for  the  entire  herd ; no  one  cow  is  apt  to  run  the  gamut 
of  these  four  degrees.  What  may  be  considered  the  highest  range  to 
be  expected  of  any  particular  animal  ? We  have  data  bearing  on  this 
point,  but  unfortunately  the  number  of  observations  are  less  exten- 
sive than  should  be  required,  and  future  work  along  this  line  has  been 
planned.  We  may,  however,  present  what  facts  we  have  as  follows: 


45 


TABLE  VII. 

Showing  Highest  Variation  in  Temperature  of  Same  Animal 
in  Each  Period. 


Calculation  of  the  vari- 
ation of  single  animal  in 
evening  temperatures,  for 
successive  evenings,  for 
thirty  cases,  gave  the 
maximum  variation  as 
2.2°. 


<u 

O 

o 

bb 

o 

o> 

a 

o 

§ 

*8 

u 

o 

a 

£8 

8 

0.6 

1.2 

9 

0.3 

0.7 

10 

0.6 

0.7 

11 

0.2 

1.0 

13 

0.8 

0.9 

16 

1.6 

1.4 

20 

2.1 

0.3 

21 

0.0 

0.3 

25 

0.1 

0.3 

26 

0.0 

1.2 

28 

0.6 

0.2 

36 

0.0 

0.2 

1 Maxima : 

2.1 

1.4 

j Noon. 

c 

c 

o 

c 

S 

<1 

bb 

*3 

a> 

> 

w 

1.8 

1.8 

1.4 

0.7 

1.4 

0.8 

0.9 

0.1 

0.8 

0.6 

0.3 

0.1 

0.4 

0.8 

0.4 

0.6 

0.8 

22  (30) 

0.1 

0.1 

1.2 

1.0 

0.2 

0.6 

0.9 

0.2 

0.7 

0.2 

2.2 

0.3 

0.7 

1.8 

1.8 

2.2  (?) 

From  Table  VII.  we  may  conclude  that  the  greatest  departure  any 
animal  is  likely  to  show  from  any  observed  temperature  of  any  day, 
on  any  preceding  or  succeeding  day,  at  the  same  hour,  is  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  two  degrees  for  the  morning  and  evening,  and  less  than 
two  degrees  during  the  day.  This  must  guide  us  in  any  comparison 
we  may  make  between  a supposed  reaction  temperature  of  any  period 
and  a known  normal  temperature  for  same  period  twenty-four  hours 
removed  therefrom. 


TABLE  VIII. 

Normal  Temperatures  of  Critical  Periods,  Associated  with  Evening  Temperatures,  in  a Herd. 


46 


<N  <M 


<N|t  »o|2 


<*1,4 


•sairn'Biadniax 

3nm8Aa 


to  o oo  to 


<N  ® GO  to 


o o o o o 


s s 


•sdnoj£) 


•iiox 


•aippiK 


TABLE  VIII.— Continued. 

Normal  Temperatures  of  Critical  Periods,  Associated  with  Evening  Temperatures,  in  a Herd. 


47 


a .9 


q.  > 


a ^ 

ft  o 

h •- 

g>  £ 


i§  s'  3 


•soiniBjadniax 

SaiuaAa 


^ o aoo 

8 8 8 88 


■sdnojf) 


*qStH 


•AVOl-TUim 


48 


TABLE  IX. 


Showing  the  Maximal  Departure  from  Initial  Evening  Tempera- 
ture,  of  Temperatures  of  Critical  Periods. 


Evening  Tempera- 
tures. 

Period  IV. 
Morning. 

Period  V. 
Forenoon. 

Period  VI. 
Noon. 

Period  VIII. 
Evening. 

© 

.00 

2 

3 

N 

© 
1 L 

2 

13 

a5 

to 

2 

'3 

© 

to 

2 

102.6° 

102.4 
102.2 
102.0 
101.8 
101.6 

101.4 
101.2 
101.0 
100.8 
100.6 

100.4 
100.2 
100.0 

99.8 
99.6 
99  4 
98.0 

Maxima .... 

2.2° 

1.6 

1.0 

1.4 

1.7 

0.9 

0.6 

0.7 

1.6 

0.5 

0.6 

0.9 

2.2 

(3.8°) 

1.0 

1.8 

1.8 

1.6 

0.2 

.8 

1.0 

1.0 

0.6 

0.2 

0.2 

1.0 

. 

2.0° 

0.2 

1.2 

0.4 

1.2 

0.4 

0.6 

0.4 

0.8 

1.0° 

2.0  (4.6) 
1.6 

1.2 

1.4  (2.8)  ? 
2.6 

1.0 
1.6 
1.2 
0.8 

0.6° 

0.8° 

0.4° 

0.7 

0.5 

0.9 

0.8 

1.6 

1.4 

0.6 

1.6 

1.7 

1.0° 

0.2 

0.2 

0.2 

0.4 

0.4 

1™ 

1.2 

0.8 

0.2 

0.6 

1.2 

1.0 

1.4 

0.4 

0.8 

0.8 

0.8 

0.2 

1.4 

0.8 

1.8 

1.0 

1.0 

0.8 

1.6 

2.2 

2.6 

2.8 

—2.6 

+18 

—2.8 

—2.0 

1.4 

2.8? 

—2.2 

2.2 

Laws  for  occurrence  of  max- 
ima and  minima  of  normal  tem- 
peratures calculated  from  the 
initial  evening  temperature. 

Above  101°  (initial)  the 
normal  coincides;  below 
this  temperature,  count 
from  101°. 

Runs  below  100  6°  in  pro- 
portion as  initial  exceeds 
100.6°. 

Below  102°  (initial)  runs 
a degree  above  initial,  but 
does  not  exceed  102.4°. 

Averages  a degree  below 
initial  temperature. 

oj 

S2 

p 

i « 
o 
o 
>* 
'© 
a5 

a 

8 

& 

"s 

3 ' 

a 

i 

© 

© 

£1 

& 

to 

a 

p 

Runs  1.5  above  initial 
temperature,  but  does  not 
exceed  102  6°. 

Averages  1.5°  below  ini- 
tial temperature. 

Max. 

Min. 

Max. 

Min. 

Max. 

Min. 

Max. 

Min. 

Suppose,  however,  we  have  but  one  series  of  observations  for  less 
than  a twenty-four-hour  period.  What  departure  from  any  initial 
temperature  may  be  expected  in  any  subsequent  period  ? Our  data 
must  be  judged  from  the  initial  evening  temperatures.  Table  VI II. 
shows  the  temperatures  for  the  critical  periods  (when  reaction  is 
measured)  that  were  associated  in  the  same  animal  with  the  evening 
temperatures  shown  in  the  first  column.  From  this  table  and  other 
data  we  have  prepared  Table  IX.,  which  shows  the  greatest  amount 
of  departure  from  the  initial  temperatures  which  the  various  cases 
presented,  both  in  an  upward  and  downward  direction.  From  this 


49 


table  we  see  that  we  have  departures  from  the  initial  temperature 
ranging  from  1.4°  to  2.8°  (neglecting  one  or  two  very  aberrant  cases). 
The  general  average  of  these  departures  is  about  2.5°,  which  has 
already  been  independently  chosen  by  operators  as  the  limit  of  legiti- 
mate variation  from  the  initial  temperature.  An  examination  of 
these  tables  shows  further  that  the  general  tendency  of  these  associa- 
tions is  to  keep  within  still  narrower  limits  of  the  initial  temperature, 
so  that  a degree,  or  at  most  two  degrees,  limit  of  variation  is  more 
nearly  approximately  the  true  normal  departure.  Thus  we  have  now 
seen  the  strongest  evidence  that  can  be  offered  in  favor  of  using  this 
method  for  “ approximate  ” determination  of  the  reaction. 

When,  however,  the  initial  temperatures  are  relatively  high,  it  is 
manifestly  wrong  to  allow  any  margin  in  an  upward  direction.  Our 
data  show  that  in  such  cases  the  subsequent  temperatures  are  corre- 
spondingly lower  than  they  would  be  if  the  initial  temperatures  were 
low,  and  the  reverse  rule  also  holds  good.  Thus  it  follows  that  we  can 
use,  with  equal  certainty , a fixed  standard  of  reference , and  this  was 
employed  in  Table  V.  with  marked  success.  After  finding  how  much 
the  initial  temperature  was  a guide  to  the  subsequent  normal,  I con- 
eluded  to  calculate  the  reaction  from  rules  discoverable  by  inspection 
of  Table  IX.  These  rules  combine  the  advantages  of  both  methods 
in  such  a way  as  to  eliminate  some  of  the  factors  of  error  present  in 
each.  The  rules  are  in  place  on  Table  IX.,  and  need  not  be  repeated 
here.  It  will  be  noticed,  however,  that  there  is  some  variation  in  the 
rules  for  the  different  periods.  The  difference  between  the  maximal 
normal,  as  calculated  by  these  rules,  and  the  actual  record  may  be 
termed  the  u supra-maximal  excess,”  or  simply  “ maximal  excess,”  it 
being  understood  that  no  reaction  is  to  be  predicated  if  the  recorded 
temperature  falls  below  the  calculated  normal.  As  this  maximum  is 
based  on  data  from  all  the  herd,  and  up  to  which  only  a few  animals 
come,  there  is  left  a wide  zone  in  which  individual  cases  of  normal 
temperature  may  occur,  clear  down  to  the  minimal  normals  of  a herd. 
That  is,  the  maximal  excess  is  the  “ least  actual  reaction,”  while  it  is 
possible  that  the  real  reaction  may  also  include  this  wide  zone  (greatest 
downward  departure  to  greatest  upward  departure).  When  so  in- 
cluded, we  have  the  “ possible  excess.”  To  determine  the  probable 
location  of  the  real  reaction  between  these  limits,  it  is  necessary  to 
observe  the  individual  cow  for  a protracted  period,  in  order  to  learn 
the  most  usual  associations  with  the  initial  temperature,  or  to  deter- 


50 


mine  the  usual  habit  of  variation  at  the  hours  the  reaction  occurred. 
Such  a calculation  will  give  the  “ mean  reaction,”  which,  of  course, 
is  only  the  nearest  approximation  which  it  is  possible  for  us  to  make. 
Unnecessary  as  it  is  in  the  majority  of  cases  to  go  to  all  this  trouble, 
it  is  necessary , if  we  wish  to  determine  all  the  cases  of  reaction.  Let 
the  reader  emphasize  this  point.  We  see  just  what  care  must  be  exer- 
cised if  we  would  reduce  the  present  element  of  uncertainty  which  all 
operators  realize  exists,  and  which  has  been  well  expressed  by  Dr. 
Pearson  as  follows  (italics  his)  : 

“ But  we  have  not  yet  reached  the  time  when  it  will  he  possible  to  give 
each  animal  in  a herd  the  same  dose  of  tuberculin,  measure  the  tem- 
perature and  blindly  declare  each  animal  which  reacts , tuberculous  and 
the  others  healthy. v 

So  far  as  our  experience  goes,  the  above  quotation  may  be  revised 
to  read : 

“ We  have  not  yet  sufficient  knowledge  of  the  true  normal  tempera- 
ture which  we  may  expect  of  any  particular  cow  so  that  we  can  de- 
clare what,  if  any,  the  reaction  in  her  case  is.” 

I think,  however,  that  we  can  attain  a closer  approximation  to  this 
knowledge  by  proceeding  according  to  the  rules  laid  down  in  this 
paper. 


51 


TABLE  X. 

Giving*  a Comparison  Between  the  Least  and  the  Possible 
Reactions,  as  Calculated  by  General  Rules  and 
from  Individual  Records. 


ts  ft 

'a  a 

i-h  a> 

-cH 
a . 

S’S  |> 

55  W a8 


16 


December  29. 

January  9. 
“ 10. 
“ 23. 

“ 24. 


100.4 


101.6 

98.4 


Approx,  react., 
3.2 


100.4 

99.5 

100.0 

99.0 

100.6 


101.2 

100.6 

100.2 

101.3 


103.6 

99.8 


100.4 

99.9 


102.0 

100.6 

100.0 

100.5 

100.8 


103.4 

98.0 

100.2 

100.0 

101.0 


{Least  excess 

Possible  excess., 
Mean  excess 


3.2 

3.8 


1.2 

2.0 

1.5 


2.4 

5.4 

3.4 


/Least  excess. 
General 1 Possible  exce 


2.0 

4.2 


101.0 

101.0 

101.4 

102.6 

100.0 

100.7 

100.5 

100.2 

100.5 

100.4 

100.9 

101.2 

100.7 

101.0 

100.8 

100.9 

101.0 

101.9 

100.4 

1.5 


December  29. 
January  23. 

“ 24. 

March  20. 


loo.e 


fto 

<lhlN 


99.2 

100.0 


100.2 

100.6 


{Least  excess 

Possible  excess. 
Mean  excess 


07 
2.1 
1.5  | 


General j 

^ Least  excess 

0.4 


December  29., 

January  23., 
“ 24. 


100  0 100-8 
1000  100.0 
Approx,  react., 

3.1 


100.8 

100.7 

100.2 


(Least  excess 

Individual.  ...k  Possible  excess.. 

(Mean  excess 


102.6 

100.6 

101.8 


103.1 

100.7 

102.5 


0.8 

2.0 

1.4 


0.6 

2.4 

1.5 


102.4 

100.7 

102.5 


101.7 

100.6 

102.0 


'General. 


f Least  excess, 
I Possible 


1.6 


1.5 

3.1 


0.2 


10 


December  29. 

January  23. 
“ 24. 


- 102  2 101*4 

*5  i02.2  1Q12 

ft  °3 


101.8 

101.2 

101.6 


102.0 

101.2 

101.9 


100.2 

101.0 

101.1 


102.6 

101.2 

101.3 


101.8 

101.0 

101.8 


[Individual....  •{  Least  excess  (nearly  mean  and  possible). 


1.3 


General j 

^ Leas 

it  excess 

0.4 

11 

i December  29 

[January  23 

I “ 24 

102  4 100-6 
102,4  98.0 

99.8 

99.9 
100.0 

101.0 

100.0 

100.7 

99.6 

99.1 

99.7 

100.0 

99.9 

100.2 

100.8 

100.8 

100.7 

13 

December  29 

January  23 

“ 24 

. 100.2 
4*  101,4  100.0 

< 25  w 

100.8 

100.4 

100.0 

101.6 

100.7 

101.0 

102.7 

100.4 

100.0 

103.4 

101.0 

100.2 

101.8 

101.0 

101.4 

Individual....  *j 

( Least  excess 

[ Possible  excess 

0.6 

0.9 

| 2.3 

2.7 

2.4 

3.2 

0.4 

0.8 

General -1 

(Leas 
1 Poss 

st  excess 

1 1.1 
3.3 

1.2 

ible  excess 



52 


TABLE  X. — Continued. 

Giving  a Comparison  Between  the  Least  and  the  Possible 
Reactions,  as  Calculated  by  General  Rules  and 
from  Individual  Records. 


20 


December  29. 

January  9. 

“ 10. 


I— I Q 

Si  > 
■£'2  ® 
S|s 

£5  W ^ 


100.4 


100.2 

101.0 


< 


101.6 

98  9 

101.0 


104.2 

101  2 
100.9 


101.4 

100.5 


100.4 

100.6 

100.7 


100.2 

100.7 

100.6 


Individual.... 


Least  excess , 

Possible  excess. 


2.7 


3.0 

3.3 


General 


Least  excess 

Possible  excess. 


2.8 

3.8 


18 


21  [December  29. 

January  9. 

“ 10. 


ioo.e 


‘l 


101.0 

102.4 


104.6 

100.4 

100.4 


104.1 

101.4 

101.1 


102  5 
101.3 


101.2 

100.9 

100.0 


101.5 


101.1 

100.5 


Individual....  < Least  excess. 1.4 


4.2 


27 


1.2 


General j 

f Least  excess 

[ Possible  excess 

3.6 

2.5 

4.5 

0.9 

3.0 

December  29 

January  9 

“ 10 

- 100  6 

.g  iUU  b 100  6 

SI  eo 

102.4 

100.1 

100.0 

104.0 

101.0 
100.7 

104.3 

101.2 

25 


104  4 

100.8 

100.6 


103.4 

100.3 

100.9 


Individual. 


Least  excess. 


23 


3.0 


31 


36 


2.3 


General. 


( Least  excess 

1 Possible  excess. 


1.4 

1.8 


2.4 

44 


2.7 

4.7 


2.2  | 


1.3 


26  [January  2. 

21. 

“ 24. 


102.2 


. & 

£ g” 


102.4 

104.0 


102.0 

1004 

100.4 


101.5 

100.3 

101.4 


| 103.8  | 101.8 

100.4  I 101.7  I 101.6 

1015  101.9  102.3 


llndividnal  J Least  excess 

j individual....  j Possible  excess 


! General, 


( Least  excess 

(Possible  excess. 


1.6 

~2.2~ 


1.6 


0.1 

1.2 


3.6 


0.3 


28  [January  2. 
I “ 9. 


.s 

-I  **<3  P-t  CM 


101.3 


101.8 

101.8 


103.5 

100.0 

100.6 


104.0 

101.0 

100.8 


1.9 


1.6 


100.4 


104.0 

100.9 

100.7 


101.8 

100.2 

98.0 


Individual. 


f Least  excess 

( Possible  excess 


2.9 

3.5 


3.0 


3.1 


3.8 


General 


f Least  excess 

(Possible  excess. 


1.2 

2.6 


1.7 
3 7 


[January  2. 

! “ 23. 

“ 24. 


101.5 


101.0 

98.0 


100.0 
100.5 
100  5 


100.4  . 

100.8  i 

100.8  I 


100.5 

100.7 


1010 

101.2 

101.0 


101.0 

100.6 

101.0 


36  January  2. 

! " A 


101.0 


101.6 

100.6 


103.6 

100.0 

100.0 


105.1 

100.9 

100.7 


100.8 


103.5 

100.8 

100.5 


103.7 

100.3 

101.0 


Individual,...  4 Least  excess.. 


3.6 


42 


2.7 


2.7 


I General. 


f Least  excess 

(Possible  excess 


2.6 

3.2 


3.1 

5.1 


1.7 


53 


Not  any  of  our  cases  have  been  observed  long  enough  to  determine 
the  probable  reaction.  The  few  records  we  have  on  this  line  we  pre- 
sent in  Table  X.,  an  inspection  of  which  table  serves  to  show  how 
great  the  difference  is  in  the  application  of  these  various  methods. 
The  “ approximate  reaction”  compared  with  these  figures  shows  how, 
atone  time,  the  coincidence  is  with  the  “least  excess;”  at  another, 
how  it  falls  in  with  the  greatest  “ possible  excess.” 

However,  the  best  that  can  be  done  is  to  take  the  “ general  rules  ” 
and  to  determine  the  maximal  excess,  if  any,  for  each  period.  Of 
that  much  reaction  we  are  at  least  sure,  and  we  are  also  sure  that  the 
figures  more  equably  represent  the  true  state  of  things  than  if  we  had 
used  the  approximate  reaction.  Accordingly  we  have  Table  XI. 


TABLE  XI. 

Showing  Excess  of  Temperatures  for  the  Different  Periods ; and  Comparison  of  Total  Tuberculosis  with 


54 


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Ml 

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55 


EXPLANATION  OF  TABLE  XI. 

This  table  was  calculated  by  the  methods  jUst  discussed;  for  bed- 
time period  we  added  a degree  to  the  initial  to  get  the  normal,  not  to 
exceed  102.2°  ; for  midnight  we  chose  the  maximum  101.8°  as  a fixed 
normal;  for  afternoon  the  fixed  normal  maximum  of  102.2°  was 
chosen. 

The  first  thing  that  strikes  us  is  that  by  these  rules  the  period  having 
the  highest  temperature  need  not  be  the  one  necessarily  which  gives 
the  highest  reaction.  Thus  we  discover  that  No.  1,  which  had  a con- 
tinuously falling  temperature,  shows  a decided  reaction  at  midnight. 
We  also  learn  that  the  reaction  period  is  one  of  varying  length,  and 
that  the  highest  point  in  it,  is  not  necessarily  at  its  middle,  although 
there  seems  to  be  a general  tendency  towards  a regular  curve,  whose 
height  increases  with  the  length,  but  not  directly  so,  the  longer  curves 
being  much  flatter  than  the  shorter  ones.  In  calculating  the  “ dura- 
tion of  a reaction,”  we  have  been  guided  largely  by  the  general  nature 
of  the  few  curves  that  are  complete,  as  most  of  the  longer  ones  have 
both  ends  disappearing  in  periods  where  no  observation  was  taken. 
Thus  the  figures  on  this  head  are  probably  rather  roughly  approxi- 
mate. The  total  reaction  was  calculated  by  multiplying  the  average 
reaction  into  the  “ duration.” 


* 


TABLE  XII. 

Showing  Duration  of  Reactions,  and  Height  and  Location  of  Their  Maximal  Points. 


56 


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r— t i—l  i-H  Hn  H rl  H rl  N N N CN  CN  CN  CN  N M CO  CO 


57 


EXPLANATION  OF  TABLE  XII. 

This  table  is  partly  also  a chart  showing  by  means  of  lines  the 
length  of  the  reactions,  the  height  of  the  highest  reaction,  and  the 
point  in  the  line  where  this  maximum  occurs.  The  main  object  of 
the  chart  is  to  show  that  observation  at  morning,  forenoon  and  noon 
strikes  most  (though  not  all)  the  reactions  at  some  point  where  reaction 
can  be  determined.  These  periods  are,  therefore,  the  most  “ critical  ” 
in  importance ; but  the  midnight  and  afternoon  periods  are  needed  to 
include  all  the  cases,  while  if  one  desires  to  get  a proper  idea  of  the 
“ duration  ” from  which  to  calculate  the  total  reaction,  it  becomes  need- 
ful to  observe,  not  only  in  all  the  periods  of  the  first  night  and  day, 
but  indefinitely  into  the  second  night.  For  practical  purposes  this  is 
not  needful,  as  the  long  reactions  are  easily  diagnosed  from  a single 
observation,  which  is  likely  to  strike  them  anywhere.  It  is  the  short 
reactions  that  may  escape  us ; these,  as  can  be  seen,  occur  late  in  the 
day.  Thus  in  selecting  cows  for  purchase,  if  on  being  tested  for 
twelve  or  fifteen  hours,  and  no  reaction  occurs,  it  is  not  safe  to  stop  at 
this  point,  because  a reaction  may  be  found  at  eighteen  or  twenty-one 
hours  after  injection. 


58 


TABLE  XIII. 

Showing  the  Co-Variants  of  H,  M.  E. 


I Highest  Maximal 
j Excess. 

Time  from  Initial 
Temperature  to 
Beginning  of  Re- 
action. 

Duration  of  Re- 
action. 

Maximal  Tempera- 
ture. 

j O’clock  of  M.  T. 

Total  Reaction. 

Rise  from  Initial 
Temperature. 

Amount  of 
Tubercle. 

Number  of  Case. 

1 

5.5 

6 hrs. 

+21  hrs. 

106.5 

6 a.  m. 

84 

6.3 

11 

17 

4.6 

3 

21 

106.8 

2 p.  m. 

65 

4.7 

7 

27 

4.4 

3 

24 

106.0 

12  m. 

72 

3.6 

21 

4 

4.3 

3 

18 

106.3 

5 a.  m. 

47 

3.8 

29 

3 

4.0 

6 

21 

106.2 

4 p.  m. 

69 

6.2 

15 

18 

4.0 

6 

18 

105.8 

10  a.  m. 

70 

4.6 

20 

23 

4.0 

6 

21 

106.2 

8 p.  m. 

63 

5.2 

3 

42 

3.7 

+6 

18 

105.3 

12  m. 

45 

4.1 

9 

15 

3.7 

6 

18 

105.5 

6 a.  m. 

50 

3.7 

4 

40 

3.6 

6 

18 

105.2 

1 p.  m. 

59 

5.2 

14 

12 

3.6 

6 

18 

105.4 

5 p.  m. 

58 

52 

6 

19 

3.6 

+3 

15 

104.6 

6 a.  m. 

28 

4 0 

7 

21 

3.4 

6 

12 

105.4 

6 a.  m. 

30 

3.4 

11 

14 

3.2 

3 

18 

104.8 

12  m. 

27 

2.2 

2 

2 

2.8 

12 

3 

104.2 

10  a.  m. 

8 

3.8 

7 

20 

2.7 

9 

18 

104.4 

5 p.  m. 

38 

3.8 

16 

25 

2.6 

—6 

18 

104.6 

5 a.  m. 

32 

1.6 

2 

5 

2.6 

+6 

18 

105.1 

11  a.  m. 

43 

4.1 

26 

36 

2.5 

12 

15 

105.0 

11  a.  m. 

34 

3.5 

16 

32 

2.2 

3 

+6 

104.0 

12  a.  m. 

33 

1.6 

1 

26 

2.0 

15 

3 

103.6 

1 p.  m. 

5 

3.2 

? 

16 

1.8 

9 

12 

104.0 

11  a.  m. 

20 

2.7 

ii 

28 

1.8 

9 

9 

103.0 

11  a.  m. 

14 

2.4 

19 

39 

1.6 

12 

9 

103.1 

1 p.  m. 

9 

3.1 

7 

8 

i.4 

0 

12 

+103.3 

8 p.  m. 

8 

48 

1 

1.2 

15 

6 

103.4 

4 p.  m. 

7 

2.0 

10 

13 

.7 

15 

6 

102.3 

2 p.  m. 

4 

2.9 

8 

24 

.5 

6 

3 

102.7 

8 p.  m. 

+1 

1.9 

43 

.4 

18 

3 

102.6 

4 p.  m. 

+1 

2.0 

9 

.4 

18 

3 

102.6 

4 p.  m. 

+1 

4.0 

10 

A STUDY  OF  CO- VARIANTS  AND  DI- VARIANTS. 

We  have  now,  from  direct  observation  and  from  calculation,  quite 
a number  of  facts  pertaining  to  each  case,  and  it  behooves  us  to  com- 
pare these  facts  to  see  how  they  are  related. 

DISCUSSION  OF  TABLE  XIII. 

This  table  has  the  highest  maximal  excess  figures  placed  in  the 
order  of  their  magnitude,  beginning  with  the  highest.  In  succeeding 
columns  are  placed  the  facts  that  are  associated  with  each  “ H.  M.  E. 
number,”  and  from  a diligent  study  of  them  the  following  laws 
appear : 


59 


(1)  The  higher  the  reaction  the  sooner  it  occurs.  Should  this  law 
be  definitely  established,  it  would  show  that  the  calculated  reaction 
for  No.  1 gives  a greatly  too  low  figure. 

(2)  The  higher  the  reaction  the  longer  it  lasts.  Should  this  law 
be  shown  to  be  absolute,  we  have  but  to  determine  the  duration  of  a 
reaction  to  enable  us  to  judge  of  its  probable  height. 

(3)  Naturally,  the  maximal  temperature  will  directly  co-vary  with 
the  H.  M.  E. 

(4)  Naturally,  also,  it  follows  from  (1)  that  the  o’clock  of  the 
occurrence  of  the  maximal  temperature  is  later  in  the  day,  the  smaller 
the  H.  M.  E. 

(5)  Naturally,  the  total  reaction  will  vary,  but  not  uniformly,  with 
the  H.  M.  E.  If  we  had  a true  record  of  maximal  excesses  and  of 
“ durations,”  I believe  that  the  “ total  reaction,”  as  calculated  from 
their  product,  would  be  a valuable  set  of  data  from  a purely  physio- 
logical standpoint,  for  this  alone  would  really  express  the  “true 
reaction.” 

(6)  The  next  column  gives  the  “ approximate  reaction,”  and  shows 
how  far  this  varies  from  the  order  of  the  H.  M.  E.,  although  a gen- 
eral co- variation  is  naturally  to  be  expected. 

(7)  The  amount  of  tuberculosis  seems  to  be  thoroughly  disvariant 
with  H.  M.  E.,  and  about  everything  else  in  the  table.  This  shows 
that  the  reaction  is  in  no  wise  directly  dependent  on  the  amount  of 
tuberculosis.  Sometimes  the  high  reaction  indicates  a small  amount, 
and  in  other  cases  a large  amount  of  disease,  and  vice  versa  for  low 
reactions.  What  is  to  be  ascertained  is  the  presence  of  a reaction. 
Let  no  one  think  that  he  may  allow  a few  cows  to  go  scot  free,  as 
“probably  not  much  affected,”  because  the  reaction  was  “low  or 
doubtful.”  Herein  lies  the  real  reason  for  emphasizing  work  of  this 
sort.  Let  us  have  all  the  light  we  can ; let  the  observations  be  ex- 
tended ; let  the  slaughter  be  extensive  until  sound  animals  are  sacri- 
ficed ; let  the  facts  be  carefully  and  fully  observed,  and  with  great 
detail  and  accuracy,  and  above  all,  let  them  he  published.  Are  we  to 
be  treated  to  the  spectacle  of  men  going  about  injecting  herds  of  cattle, 
making  a few  temperature  observations,  killing  the  cases  most  obviously 
reacting,  finding,  naturally,  that  their  diagnoses  were  correct,  and  then 
pocketing  their  data,  no  one  knows  what  they  may  be  ? The  scientific 
world  gets  only  the  brief  mention,  “ such  and  such  a herd  was  injected, 
so  many  animals  were  diagnosed  as  tuberculous,  and  have  been 


60 


slaughtered,  the  diagnosis  confirmed,  and  the  carcasses  have  been 
buried.”  Will  any  one  dare  believe  that  tuberculosis  has  been  stamped 
out  of  these  herds  f And  yet  that  is  what  the  public  are  led  to  think. 


TABLE  XIV. 


Showing  Co-variants  of  Age. 


Breed. 

AGE. 

Highest  Maximal 
Excess. 

Total  Reaction. 

Amount  of 
Tubercle. 

| Initial  Tempera- 
j ture. 

<L> 

C3 

t- 

s 

o 

02 

Locality. 

Range. 

Number  of  Case. 

A. 

13  years 

1.6 

9 

7 

100.0 

i J.  O.  M. 

N.  J. 

3.1 

8 

S.  H. 

12  years. 

3.6 

59 

14 

1000 

s.  s. 

N.  Y. 

5.2 

12 

H. 

12  years 

1.2 

7 

10 

101.4 

M.  P. 

N.  J. 

3.4 

13 

H. 

10  vears 

4.3 

44 

29 

102.5 

G.  W.  T. 

N.  B. 

3.8 

3 

S.  H. 

10  years 

2.0 

5 

? 

100.4 

s.  s. 

N.  Y. 

5.2 

16 

N. 

10  years 

2.6 

43 

26 

101.0 

D.  H.  V. 

N.  B. 

4.5 

36 

G. 

10  years 

1.8 

14 

19 

100.6 

L.  P.  M. 

N.  Y. 

2.4 

39 

H. 

9 years 

1.4 

8 

48 

103  3 

M.  P. 

N.  J. 

1.2 

1 

H. 

9 years 

3.4 

30 

11 

102.0 

T.  C. 

N.  B. 

4.4 

14 

J. 

9 years 

4.0 

69 

15 

100.0 

J.  O.  C. 

Conn. 

6.4 

18 

H. 

9 years 

3.6 

28 

7 

100.6 

J.  N. 

N.  B. 

4.0 

21 

H. 

9 years 

4.0 

70 

20 

101.2 

G.  W.  T. 

N.  B. 

4.6 

23 

J. 

9 years 

2.7 

38 

16 

100.6 

A.H  C. 

N.  Y. 

3.8 

25 

N. 

8 years 

2.8 

8 

7 

100.4 

P.  D. 

N.  B. 

4.0 

20 

H. 

7 years 

0.4 

+1 

100.6 

G.  W.  T. 

N.  B. 

3 4 

9 

A. 

7 years 

3.7 

45 

9 

101.2 

L.  S.  D. 

Vt 

4.7 

15 

N. 

7 years 

0.7 

4 

8 

109  4 

D.  H.  V. 

N.  B. 

3.7 

24 

S.  H. 

6 years 

5.5 

84 

11 

100  2 

s.  s. 

N.  Y. 

6.3 

17 

G 

6 years 

3.6 

58 

6 

100.2 

w.  A.  R. 

Mass. 

5.2 

19 

G.  H. 

6 years 

2.5 

34 

16 

101.5 

G.  W.  T. 

N.  B. 

4.2 

32 

H. 

2 vears  6 months 

0.4 

+1 

102.2 

Bred. 

N.  B. 

27 

10 

S.  H. 

2 years  4 months 

2.2 

33 

1 

102.2 

Bred. 

N.  B. 

2.3 

26 

S.H. 

2 years 

4.4 

72 

21 

102.4 

Bred. 

N.  B. 

3.6 

4 

H. 

2 years 

4.6 

65 

7 

102.1 

Bred. 

N.  B. 

4.8 

27 

J. 

1 year  8 months 

1.8 

20 

11 

101.3 

Bred. 

N.  B. 

2.7 

28 

G.  A. 

9 months 

3.7 

50 

4 

101.8 

Bred. 

N.  B. 

4.1 

40 

G. 

9 months 

4.0 

63 

3 

101.0 

Bred. 

N.  B. 

5.2 

42 

G. 

9 months 

05 

+1 

100.8 

Bred. 

N.  B. 

1.9 

43 

J.  H. 

2 months 

2.6 

32 

2 

103.0 

Bred. 

N.  B. 

2.8 

5 

J.  H. 

1 month 

32 

27 

2 

102.6 

Bred. 

N.  B. 

2.2 

2 

STUDY  OF  TABLE  XIY. 

I 

This  table  exhibits  the  co- variants  of  the  age  of  the  animals.  We 
see  first  that  the  different  breeds  are  pretty  uniformly  represented  for 
the  different  ages.  The  highest  maximal  excess  seems  also  to  be  dis- 
tributed without  reference  to  age.  The  total  reaction  preponderates 
in  amount  with  the  younger  animals.  They  have  a greater  power  to 
react.  They  also  have  a less  amount  of  tubercle,  and  this  of  itself 
may  explain  why  the  reaction  is  higher  ; for,  while  from  Table  XIII. 
we  saw  that  the  amount  of  tubercle  did  not  vary  per  individual  with 
the  reaction,  on  summing  up  the  amount  for  a number  of  cases,  we 


61 


get  indications  that  a small  amount  of  tuberculosis  produces  a greater 
total  reaction  (not  necessarily  a greater  a approximate  reaction”  or 
even  H.  M.  E.)  than  does  a more  advanced  state  of  the  disease.  Cows 
over  nine  years  old  have  three  times  as  much  tuberculosis  as  those 
under  three  years  of  age.  The  initial  temperature  also  seems  to  be 
higher  with  young  animals,  averaging  about  102°  for  those  under 
three  years  and  101°  for  those  above  nine  years.  This  fact  is  easily 
observed.  Almost  any  temperature  chart  where  the  young  animals 
are  exhibited  by  themselves  shows  this,  and,  coupled  with  the  fact 
that  they  are  less  tuberculous,  no  wonder  veterinarians  are  cautious  in 
diagnosing  reaction.  But  age  is  one  factor  to  be  considered  in  such  a 
judgment. 

The  next  column  of  this  table  shows  that  the  older  animals  have 
come  from  other  herds,  while  all  the  youngest  (below  three  years  of 
age)  have  been  bred  on  the  farm.  The  column  giving  locality  shows 
that  not  only  this  State  but  New  York  and  several  of  the  New  Eng- 
land States  had  their  representatives  in  the  herd — all  tuberculous. 
Are  we  to  judge  that  these  States  are  also  saturated  with  tuber- 
culosis ? 


TABLE  XV. 

Showing  Variations  of  Amount  of  Tubercle  with  other  Co -Variants  and  Di- Variants. 


62 


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63 


STUDY  OF  TABLE  XY. 

First  let  us  ascertain  if  the  length  of  time  the  cows  have  been 
members  of  our  herd  has  influenced  the  amount  of  tuberculosis. 

Cows  over  two  years  at  the  farm,  average  in  tubercle,  19 ; in 
age,  8. 

Cows  two  years  at  the  farm,  average  in  tubercle,  12 ; in  age,  7. 

Cows  under  two  years  at  the  farm,  average  in  tubercle,  10;  in 
age,  3. 

The  age  relations  show  that  the  tubercle  relations  should  increase 
no  faster  than  they  seem  to  have  done,  so  that  we  may  conclude  that 
these  cattle  were  infected  before  coming  here. 

With  reference  to  the  breeds,  it  is  apparent  that  no  one  breed  has 
any  advantage  over  the  others  except  the  natives.  Of  course,  age 
must  also  be  taken  into  consideration.  It  will  be  noticed  that  all  the 
cows  added  to  the  herd  after  being  first  tested  are  natives. 

The  physical  examination  compared  with  the  amount  of  tubercle 
shows,  of  course,  no  co-variation.  We  should  expect,  however,  that 
the  amount  of  lung  tuberculosis  would  co-vary  with  the  physical 
diagnosis,  and,  to  a certain  extent,  this  is  true.  But  some  individuals 
remarkably  free  from  lung  lesions  were  “ suspected,”  while  others 
pronounced  O.  K.  had  a very  high  state  of  lung  tuberculosis.  The 
average  amount  of  lung  tubercle  in  O.  K.  cases  is  2 ; in  “ suspected  ” 
cases  4,  and  in  “ very  suspicious  ” cases  it  is  7.  There  is,  however, 
a marked  preponderance  of  tuberculous  cases  among  the  suspected 
animals. 

Unfortunately  in  this  matter,  general  averages  and  tendencies  and 
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has  its  own  individuality. 


64 


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65 


OTHER  HERDS. 

Table  XVI.  shows  the  data  observed  on  the  Vandruff  herd,  near 
Deckertown,  N.  J.  This  certainly  presents  a remarkable  case  in  Ollie, 
who,  in  many  respects,  suggested  our  Case  1.  The  temperature  curve  is 
almost  identically  similar.  No  doubt  would  have  remained  in  my  mind 
of  this  cow  being  tuberculous  had  she  been  alone.  But  so  many  other 
members  of  this  herd  had  been  sick  “ like  her  ” and  were  recovering, 
and  showed  no  reaction,  that  I concluded  that  this  herd  was  free  from 
tuberculosis — pneumonia  and  mammitis  being  probably  the  true  dis- 
eases present,  and  accounted  for  the  high  temperature  of  Ollie.  Never- 
theless, the  possibility  remains  that  this  one  animal  may  be  tubercu- 
lous, although  from  the  evidence  I had,  I was  not  justified  in  diag- 
nosing a case  of  this  disease. 

I have  already  referred  to  the  work  of  other  men,  and  three  or 
more  sets  of  their  temperature  tables  lie  before  me.  Were  these  tem- 
peratures recorded  in  connection  with  those  presented  in  my  tables,  I 
would  be  justified  in  putting  the  mark  of  condemnation  upon  many 
cases  that  have  been  ,l  passed”  as  sound.  But  I dare  not  go  so  far 
as  to  pronounce  judgment  against  these  creatures  whom,  in  the  first 
place,  I have  never  studied,  and,  in  the  second  place,  are  members  of 
herds  with  peculiarities  different  from  our  own.  I merely  mention 
this  to  emphasize  the  point  that  we  need  to  experiment  along  these 
lines  with  greater  care  than  ever. 

There  should  be  no  unscientific  haste.  For  thousands  of  years 
have  we  battled  with  these  unseen  and  undreamed-of  germs,  and  now 
that  we  know  them,  let  us  study  them  more  carefully.  If  legislation 
be  needed  to  aid  in  the  stamping  out  of  this  disease,  let  the  work  be 
done  thoroughly  and  not  superficially.  It  is  not  for  the  experimenter 
to  pronounce  on  the  advisability  of  certain  features  of  a law  on  this 
subject,  e.  g.  the  matter  of  pecuniary  reimbursement  by  the  public  to 
the  loser  of  tuberculous  animals.  I would  merely  suggest  that  if  the 
matter  be  brought  properly  before  the  public,  the  people  will  insist  on 
getting  milk  from  herds  that  have  stood  this  test.  Thus  will  dairy- 
men be  compelled,  for  their  own  interests,  to  call  in  the  veterinarian — 
first,  to  test  the  herd ; secondly,  to  disinfect  the  premises ; thirdly,  to 
suggest  sanitary  modifications  in  the  stables,  and  lastly,  to  test  all  new- 
comers. This  work  no  doubt  is  expensive,  but  it  will  'pay . 


66 


I would  also  suggest  that  if  the  State  assume  control  of  this  busi- 
ness of  stamping  out  tuberculosis,  that  first  of  all  the  temperature 
record  of  each  cow  be  published,  and  that  all  suspected  cases  be  quar- 
antined until  we  know  about  how  many  cases  there  are,  then  it  will 
be  easier  to  judge  what  strain  the  treasury  will  stand.  But,  seriously,, 
these  cows  should  not  be  slaughtered  until  they  have  been  properly 
studied.  We  need  to  know  a good  deal  more  about  many  points ; all 
those  studied  in  connection  with  our  rather  meager  data  should  be 
viewed  from  a broader  standpoint,  but  especially  do  we  need  to  know 
more  about  the  methods  of  infection  and  the  presence  of  bacilli  in 
the  milk.  We  ought  also  to  know  to  what  extent  it  is  true  that  a 
second  injection  produces  a greatly  reduced  reaction,  as  suggested  from 
the  work  of  Dr.  Pearson.  There  should  also  be  a series  of  analyses 
made  of  the  meat  of  tuberculous  animals  to  see  to  what  extent  tuber- 
culin may  be  stored  in  the  tissues,  so  as  to  be  an  element  of  danger  as 
presupposed  by  Dr.  Low  in  his  recent  pamphlet  issued  from  the  Cor- 
nell Station,  N.  Y.  A pamphlet,  by  the  way,  which  gives  an 
admirable  synopsis  of  what  is  known  about  tuberculosis,  in  more 
detail  than  our  section  2. 

SUMMARY  OF  CONCLUSIONS. 

In  summarizing  this  paper  only  the  last  section  will  receive  extended 
attention.  Section  1 outlines  the  work  done  in  stamping  out  tuber- 
culosis at  the  College  farm.  Forty-one  animals  were  injected  with 
tuberculin ; twenty- four  showed  reaction,  and  the  autopsies  revealed 
tuberculous  lesions  in  all  except  two  doubtful  cases.  Half,  only,  of 
these  cases  had  been  " suspected  ” from  physical  examination. 

Section  2 considers  among  other  things  the  question  of  liability  to 
infection,  in  man,  from  the  milk  of  tuberculous  cows ; discussion  of 
the  work  of  other  observers  on  these  subjects  being  presented. 

Section  3 is  a record  or  journal  of  the  operations  in  connection  with 
the  autopsies.  Samples  of  milk  and  of  various  organs  were  preserved 
for  microscopic  work,  to  be  prosecuted  later. 

Section  4 presents  the  tables  of  data,  both  those  ascertained  by  direct 
observation,  and  those  from  calculation,  together  with  a detailed  com- 
parison of  the  facts  to  discover  co-variants.  The  following  results 
are  those  most  clearly  indicated  : 


67 


(1)  A “ reaction”  consists  in  the  recognition,  by  the  body,  of  the 
presence  of  toxines,  to  which  the  previous  presence  of  tubercle  bacilli 
has  rendered  the  tissues  sensitive.  It  is  incapable  of  exact  measure- 
ment and  can  best  be  determined  from  a calculated  normal,  the  loca- 
tion of  which  can  be  approximately  fixed  from  an  extended  series  of 
temperature  observations  on  the  individual  whose  record  is  in  doubt. 
It  can  also  be  located  as  being  certainly  below  a fixed  maximum 
determined  for  the  herd,  and,  finally,  the  initial  temperature  gives  a 
clue  to  it,  because  the  latitude  of  individual  variation  is  only  half 
that  of  the  herd  as  a whole,  viz.,  about  2.2°.  Furthermore,  the 
associations  of  normal  temperatures  with  the  initial  evening  record  is 
such  that  a yet  closer  approximation  may  be  made.  The  special  rules 
governing  this  for  the  different  hours  of  the  day  and  for  various  tem- 
peratures are  presented  with  Table  IX. 

(2)  Thus,  the  determination  of  the  reaction  reduces  itself  to  a revi- 
sion of  the  ordinary  method  (that,  viz.,  by  taking  the  difference 
between  the  initial  temperature  and  the  maximum  record)  by  incor- 
porating the  principle  that  the  temperature  of  an  animal  tends  to 
vibrate  about  a fixed  mean,  with  fixed  maximal  limits  of  oscillation, 
beyond  which  any  excess  must  be  certainly  predicated  as  a reaction. 
Furthermore,  that  this  reaction  is  an  extended  affair,  the  true  total 
reaction  being  the  integral  of  the  reaction  curve. 

• (3)  The  duration  of  a reaction  is  proportional  to  the  greatest  height 
thereof. 

(4)  The  higher  the  reaction  the  sooner  it  occurs. 

(5)  The  height  of  reaction  is  no  index  to  the  amount  of  tubercu- 
losis present. 

(6)  The  amount  of  tuberculosis  increases  regularly  with  the  age  of 
the  victim. 

(7)  There  is  little  difference  between  the  different  breeds  of  high- 
bred cattle,  so  far  as  their  susceptibility  to  tuberculosis  goes;  but 
grades,  crosses  and  especially  “ native  ” cattle  appear  somewhat  less 
subject  to  its  development. 

(8)  The  total  reaction  tends  to  be  greater  in  cases  of  slight  than  in 
cases  of  well- developed  tubercle. 

(9)  The  normal  temperatures  of  young  animals  range  higher  than 
those  of  the  older  ones. 


68 


(10)  While  the  diagnosis  of  tubercle  from  physical  examination  is 
dependent  on  the  presence  of  tubercle  in  the  lungs,  there  is  no  cer- 
tainty that  even  well-advanced  cases  can  be  thus  discovered,  nor  does 
it  necessarily  follow  that  all  suspected  tuberculous  animals  have 
lesions  of  the  lungs.  In  the  absence  of  lung  lesions,  however,  the 
chance  of  discovery  of  advanced  cases  of  this  disease  by  physical 
means  is  but  slight.  It  also  happens  that  a number  of  cows  not  suffer- 
ing from  tubercle  are  usually  included  as  “ suspected  ” by  this  sort  of 
diagnosis.  Certainly  at  least  twice  as  great  accuracy  in  discovering 
tuberculous  cattle  results  from  the  use  of  Koch’s  lymph  as  from  all 
other  means  combined. 

(11)  Slight  cases  of  reaction  may  occur  later  than  fifteen  hours 
after  injection ; and,  to  be  certain  that  all  cases  have  been  given  a 
chance  to  make  a record,  the  observations  following  injection  should 
be  continued  for  twenty- four  hours  at  least. 

(12)  If  the  object  of  injection  be  to  eradicate  the  disease  utterly 
from  a herd,  the  reacting  cases  should  be  arranged  in  the  order  of 
the  certainty  of  the  reaction  (in  a few  cases  it  will  be  needful  to 
continue  the  temperature  observations  for  several  days  to  gain  a 
knowledge  of  the  probable  “ normal  ”)  and  killed  seriatim  until 
among  the  doubtful  cases  there  occur  at  least  two  in  immediate  suc- 
cession which  are  adjudged  sound  after  extremely  thorough  examina- 
tion of  all  lymphatic  structures  and  places  where  connective  tissue 
abounds.  Then  the  premises  should  be  thoroughly  cleaned  and  dis- 
infected, and  no  new  animals  admitted  until  they  have  passed  the 
“test.”  Finally,  to  keep  the  herd  “clean,”  the  animals  should  be 
tested  annually  or  biennially. 

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. 

In  conclusion,  I desire  to  acknowledge,  with  thanks,  the  various 
services  rendered  me  by  the  different  persons  named  below.  These 
services  have  been  of  material  aid  to  me  and  to  the  securing  of  the 
data  for  this  publication.  Dr.  Leonard  T.  Pearson,  of  Philadelphia, 
Professor  in  the  Veterinary  Department  of  the  University  of  Penn- 
sylvania, for  kindly  granting  me  several  audiences  in  which  confer- 
ence was  had  on  my  work  and  valuable  directions  given  as  to  pro- 
cedure ; Dr.  Henry  R.  Baldwin,  for  much  general  direction,  counsel 


69 


and  interest  in  the  autopsies ; Dr.  A.  V.  N.  Baldwin,  for  assistance 
at  several  autopsies;  Dr.  E.  L,  Loblein,  veterinarian,  for  personal 
conducting  of  many  of  the  examinations ; last,  though  not  least,  Mr. 
E.  A.  Jones,  who  observed  nearly  all  the  temperatures — perhaps  the 
most  important  and  arduous  portion  of  the  work. 


( I ■%  f I • • 1 • ' 1 ^ * * 

/c  //'  /Ji  / *z  & & j*-  & 7 $ Hott>Us 


CHART 


EXPLANATION  OF  CHART  I. 


Chart  showing  temperature  curves  for  twenty-four  hours  after  in- 
jection of  the  members  of  the  College  herd,  each  curve  kept  separate 
from  its  neighbors. 

While  two  main  courses  are  pursued  by  these  curves,  namely,  the 
upward  course  in  Period  III.  of  most  of  the  reacting  cases,  and  the 
lower  course  for  those  not  reacting,  we  find  many  cases  that  vary 
widely  from  the  average,  and  some  cases  of  late  reaction.  The 
numbers  at  the  top  of  the  plate  are  the  hours  of  the  night  and  the 
daytime.  The  degrees  of  temperature  are  shown  at  the  sides  from 
99°  to  106°. 


CHART 


EXPLANATION  OF  CHART  II. 


Chart  showing  the  association  of  temperatures  at  critical  periods, 
with  initial  evening  temperature,  for  non- reacting  cases  in  the  College 
herd.  Morning,  forenoon,  noon  and  evening,  periods  are  shown. 

The  central  vertical  line  in  each  period  represents  the  scale  of  initial 
evening  temperatures,  the  degrees  of  which  are  shown  at  the  left  of 
the  plate.  On  the  right-hand  side  of  each  period  the  rising  lines 
show  the  highest  temperatures  associated  with  the  particular  evening 
temperature,  and  on  the  left-hand  side  the  lines  slanting  down  from 
the  middle  vertical  one  show  the  minimal  associations. 

A general  parallelism  in  these  lines  suggests  the  law  which  for  all 
periods  may  be  stated  as  follows : The  highest  expected  temperature 
for  any  period  does  not  exceed  102.6°,  nor  fall  below  100.2°,  and 
between  these  points  is  roughly  1°  above  the  initial  evening  tempera- 
ture. Especially  in  the  morning  is  a rise  of  more  than  a degree  above 
the  initial  evening  temperature  (between  100°  and  102.6°)  to  be 
looked  at  with  suspicion,  if  injection  has  taken  place. 


(73) 


•Ill 


EXPLANATION  OF  CHART  III. 


Chart  showing  ranges  of  temperature  in  individual  cases.  Six 
equal  scales  are  drawn.  The  heavy  vertical  lines  show  the  ranges, 
the  dotted  “ curves  ” represent  injection  temperatures,  the  unbroken 
ones  are  normal  temperatures,  the  broken  vertical  lines  show  the 
extent  of  the  probable  reaction,  positive  or  negative,  for  the  different 
periods. 

In  Case  9,  the  lower  dotted  line  represents  the  second  injection. 

In  Case  10,  the  noon  reaction  is  greater  than  that  of  the  afternoon, 
even  though  the  temperature  was  rising. 

In  Case  43,  the  injection  occurred  in  the  morning,  so  that  only  a 
small  part  of  the  reaction  curve  coincides  with  the  other  curve  periods, 
the  record  not  being  begun  before  6 p.  m. 

Case  8,  compared  with  Case  24  (both  tuberculous),  shows,  first, 
that  a true  reaction  curve  may  lie  below  the  normal  of  a different 
case,  and  secondly,  that  a rise  of  only  half  a degree  above  normal,  if 
the  latter  be  already  high,  indicates  a true  reaction.  In  this  instance 
there  was  a rise  of  more  than  two  degrees  above  initial  temperature, 
but  a higher  initial  was  possible,  and  such  would  have  probably  had 
a lower  normal  at  noon,  thus  tending  to  increase  the  “ real  ” reaction 
while  lessening  the  “ calculated  ” one. 

In  the  sixth  scale,  three  cases  (20,  26  and  28)  have  been  plotted, 
the  reaction  curves  being  shown  for  two  of  them  (20  and  26). 

(75) 


CHART  IV, 


ft 


EXPLANATION  OF  CHART  IV. 


Chart  showing  the  temperature  curves  of  Pennsylvania  State  Col- 
lege herd,  injected  by  Dr.  L.  F.  Pearson.  The  dotted  lines  in  the 
right-hand  set  of  curves  show  the  temperatures  for  calves.  The 
curves  C,  G,  M,  B are  of  cows  injected  twice.  The  right-hand  set 
of  curves  shows  the  effect  of  a second  injection  on  these  curves. 

Only  C and  G were  condemned,  but  according  to  our  formula 
four  or  five  others  besides  M would  have  been  suspected.  It  is  to  be 
noted,  however,  that  all  the  temperatures  average  a degree  higher  than 
with  our  herd,  possibly  due  in  part  to  a different  method  of  taking 
temperature,  viz , deeper  insertion,  for  longer  time,  and  to  the  fact 
that  these  were  taken  in  midsummer,  ours  in  midwinter.  It  also 
seems  likely  that  a few  cases  reacted  later  in  the  day.  These  sug- 
gestions are  with  diffidence  put  forward  only  as  possibilities,  and  as 
incentives  to  increased  carefulness  for  future  observers. 


(77) 


CHART 


EXPLANATION  OF  CHART  V. 


Chart  showing  temperature  curves  of  the  older  members  of  the 
Taylor  herd,  injected  by  Dr.  Conrow.  See  “ Veterinary  Magazine,” 
January,  1894. 

It  will  be  seen  at  a glance  that  the  temperature  averages  higher 
than  in  our  herd  and  that  a higher  limit  for  condemnation  was  set. 
The  dots  show  curves  of  uncondemned  cases,  which  had  they  occurred 
in  our  herd  would  have  been  certainly  tuberculous.  The  general 
effect  of  these  charts  upon  the  observer  is  to  make  it  seem  a difficult 
task  to  draw  the  line  between  a normal  and  a “ reacting  ” case. 


(79) 


£ /r?6" 


ANALYSES  OF  FERTILIZING  MATERIALS  AND  HOME 

MIXTURES. 

THE  EXPERIENCE  OF  FARMERS  WITH  HOME 
MIXTURES. 


NEW  JERSEY 

AGRICULTURAL 


Experiment  Station 


102 


NEW  JERSEY 


Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 

BULLETIN  102. 

JULY  30,  1894. 


Analyses  of  Fertilizing;  Materials  and  Home 

Mixtures. 

The  Experience  of  Farmers  with  Home 
Mixtures. 


LOUIS  A.  VOORHEES,  CHEMIST. 
JOHN  P.  STREET,  CHEMIST. 


I.  Trade  values  of  fertilizing  ingredients  for  1894, • 

II.  Average  cost  per  pound  of  plant-food  constituents. 

III.  Chemical  analyses  of  fertilizing  materials . 

TV.  Home  mixtures ; Formulas , analyses. 

V.  Home  mixing  ; The  experience  of  farmers. 


I. 

Trade  Values  of  Fertilizing  Ingredients  for  1894.- 

It  is  the  custom  in  many  States  where  a fertilizer  control  is  exer- 
cised, to  affix  a commercial  valuation  per  ton  to  the  various  brands 
analyzed.  This  ton  valuation  is  derived  by  applying  to  the  various 
kinds  and  forms  of  fertilizer  ingredients  values  previously  determined 
upon  for  them.  These  values  are  fixed  from  year  to  year ; they  vary 
according  to  the  cost  of  the  standard  materials  containing  them, 
which  are  the  sources  of  the  constituents  contained  in  mixed  fertilizers. 


4 


At  a meeting  of  Stations’  Directors  and  Chemists,  the  following 
schedule  was  arranged  for  use  in  Connecticut,  Massachusetts,  Rhode 
Island  and  New  Jersey  during  the  season  of  1894 : 


Schedule  of  Trade  Values  Adopted  by  Experiment  Stations  for  1894. 

Cents  per  pound. 

Nitrogen  in  Ammonia  Salts 19.0 

“ “ Nitrates 14.  J 

Organic  Nitrogen  in  dried  and  fine  ground  fish,  meat  and  blood, 

and  in  mixed  fertilizers 18.J 

“ “ castor  pomace  and  cotton-seed  meal 15.0 

“ “ fine  ground  bone  and  tankage 16.  J 

“ “ fine-medium  bone  and  tankage 15.0 

“ “ medium  bone  and  tankage 12.0 

“ “ coarser  bone  and  tankage 7.0 

“ “ horn  shavings,  hair  and  coarse  fish  scrap 7.0 

Phosphoric  Acid,  soluble  in  water 6.0 

“ “ “ “ ammonium  citrate* 6.0 

“ “ insoluble,  in  fine  bone  and  tankage 5.J 

“ 1 “ fine-medium  bone  and  tankage 4.J 

“ “ “ ‘ ' medium  bone  and  tankage 3.0 

“ “ “ coarser  bone  and  tankage 2.0 

“ “ “ <!  mixed  fertilizers 2.0 

“ “ " “ fine  ground  fish,  cotton-seed  meal, 

castor  pomace  and  wood  ashes...  5.0 

Potash  as  High-grade  Sulphate,  and  in  forms  free  from  Muriates 

(or  Chlorides) 5.£ 

“ “ Muriate 4.^ 


Valuation  of  Fertilizing  Ingredients  in  Fine  Ground  Feeds. 


Organic  Nitrogen  15.0 

Phosphoric  Acid 5.0 

Potash 5.0 


The  Stations’  value  for  nitrogen,  both  in  ammonia  salts  and  in 
most  organic  forms,  including  bones,  was  considerably  increased  this 
year,  owing  to  higher  wholesale  quotations  which  ruled  for  the 
materials  containing  it  during  the  six  months  preceding  the  adoption 
of  the  schedule. 


* The  solubility  of  phosphates,  in  ammonium  citrate  solutions,  is  seriously  affected  by  heat. 
An  Act  of  the  Legislature  (see  Laws  of  New  Jersey.  1874,  page  90)  provides  that  in  this  determi- 
nation the  temperature  used  shall  not  exceed  100°  Fah. ; in  Connecticut,  Rhode  Island  and 
Massachusetts  150°  Fah.  has  been  adopted.  The  higher  the  temperature  the  larger  will  be  the 
percentage  of  phosphoric  acid  dissolved  by  ammonium  citrate  solutions,  and  the  larger  the 
amount  of  this  so-called  “ reverted  ” phosphoric  acid  in  a ton  of  superphosphate  the  lower  will 
be  the  price  per  pound  of  said  acid.  Consequently  the  Station’s  valuations  of  phosphoric  acid, 
soluble  in  ammonium  citrate,  have  been  fixed  at  five  and  one-half  cents  per  pound  for  Connecticut, 
^Massachusetts  and  Rhode  Island,  and  at  six  cents  per  pound  for  New  Jersey. 


5 


In  the  case  of  phosphoric  acid,  both  as  “ available”  in  super- 
phosphates, and  as  insoluble  in  the  form  of  ground  bone,  and  in  the 
case  of  potash  in  the  form  of  sulphate,  the  Stations’  prices  are  slightly 
reduced,  because  of  the  lower  wholesale  quotations.  No  changes  were 
made  in  the  price  of  potash  derived  from  muriate  or  kainit. 

Owing  to  the  greater  relative  proportion  of  phosphoric  acid  in 
mixed  fertilizers,  and  in  ground  bone,  these  changes  in  the  schedule 
of  prices  will  doubtless  result  in  slightly  lower  ton  valuations,  on  the 
same  basis  of  composition,  than  last  year. 


II. 

Average  Cost  Per  Pound  of  Plant-Food  Constituents. 

The  cost  per  pound  of  the  actual  constituents  in  fertilizing  materials 
is  readily  derived  by  dividing  the  selling  price  per  ton  by  the  number 
■of  pounds  of  the  constituents  contained  in  it,  as  determined  by 
analysis.  In  the  following  tables  of  analyses  the  prices  per  ton  of 
the  various  materials  represent  actual  transactions  for  cash,  the 
amounts  purchased  ranging  from  less  than  a ton  to  carload  lots.  In 
most  cases  the  prices  are  for  goods  free  on  board  cars  at  factory, 
though  in  a number  of  cases  these  prices  include  cost  of  delivery. 

The  average  cost  per  pound  of  the  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid  and 
potash,  as  secured  from  the  tables  of  analyses,  may,  however,  be 
fairly  assumed  to  represent  the  manufacturers’  retail  prices  at  factory, 
and  admit  of  a comparison  with  the  Station’s  schedule  of  valuations, 
which  is  intended  to  represent  the  retail  cash  cost  per  pound  of  the 
fertilizing  ingredients  contained  in  the  raw  materials  before  they  are 
mixed  to  form  complete  fertilizers. 

A study  of  the  following  table  shows  that  the  Station’s  schedule  of 
prices  is,  with  two  exceptions,  higher  than  the  manufacturers’  average, 
viz.,  in  the  case  of  “available”  phosphoric  acid  from  bone-black 
superphosphate,  and  potash  in  the  form  of  kainit.  The  application 
of  the  schedule  prices  to  the  constituents  in  mixed  goods  is,  there- 
fore, perfectly  fair  to  the  manufacturers  in  showing  the  relative  com- 
mercial value  of  the  different  brands. 

The  samples  analyzed  represent  materials  bought  by  farmers’ 
elubs,  or  individuals,  direct  from  the  manufacturers  of  complete 
fertilizers,  or  from  large  dealers  in  fertilizer  supplies.  A full  list  of 
these  firms,  with  their  business  addresses,  is  always  published  in  the 
.annual  reports  of  this  Station. 


6 


COMPARISON  BETWEEN  STATION’S  SCHEDULE  AND  MANUFACTURERS’  AVERAGE: 
RETAIL  PRICES  OF  PLANT-FOOD  IN  FERTILIZER  SUPPLIES. 


MANUFACTURERS’ 
AVERAGE 
RETAIL  PRICES 
FOR 

stations’ 

SCHEDULE 
OF  PRICES 
FOR 
ft*  tea 

1893. 

1894. 

1894. 

cts. 

cts. 

cts. 

Cost  per  pound  of  Nitrogen  from  Nitrate  of  Soda 

15.5 

14.2 

14.5 

“ 

it 

ii 

“ “ “ Sulphate  of  Ammonia 

17.1 

18.8 

19.0 

“ 

a 

ii 

“ “ “ Dried  Blood 

17  2 

16.7 

18.5 

a 

a 

ii 

“ “ “ Dried  Fish  and  Ammonite.... 

16.3 

17.5 

18.5 

a 

a 

ii 

“ “ “ Cotton-Seed  Meal 

14.9 

13.9 

15.0 

<< 

a 

ii 

“ “ “ Dissolved  Bone 

16.0 

< < 

u 

ii 

“ fine  ground  hone  and  tankage 

14.1 

15.1 

16.5 

t 1 

ti 

ii 

“ fine-medium  bone  and  tankage 

11.3 

13.7 

15.0 

a 

it 

ii 

“ medium  bone  and  tankage 

8.4 

11.0 

12.0 

44 

i t 

ii 

“ coarse  bone  and  tankage 

6.6 

6.6 

7.0 

it 

ii 

<4 

“ Available  Phosphoric  Acid  from  Bone  Black. 

6.2 

6.5 

6.0 

ii 

a 

a 

“ “ “ “ “ S.  C.  Rock... 

5.5 

4.5 

6.0 

it 

a 

(4 

“ “ “ “ “ Dis’d  Bone.. 

6.0 

ii 

a 

ii 

“ Insoluble  in  fine  ground  bone  and  tankage.. 

5.6 

5.0 

5.5 

ii 

n 

H 

“ “ “ fine-medium  bone  and  tankage. 

4.7 

4.1. 

4.5 

ii 

tt 

“ 

“ “ “ medium  bone  and  tankage 

3.8 

2.7 

3.0 

i i 

it 

44 

“ “ “ coarse  bone  and  tankage 

2.8 

1.9 

2.0 

a 

44 

“ “ “ Potash  from  High-Grade  Sul- 

phate  

5.1 

4.9 

5.25 

a 

4 4 

“ “ “ “ “ Double  Sulph’s  of 

Pot.  and  Mag... 

5.7 

<< 

it 

« 

“ “ “ “ “ Kainit 

4.5 

4.7 

4.5 

“ 

“ 

“ 

“ “ “ “ “ Muriate 

4.1 

4.1 

4.5 

In  the  purchase  of  raw  materials  the  advantages  of  a knowledge 
of  the  markets,  and  method  and  time  of  buying,  are  shown  in  the 
variations  in  the  cost  per  pound  of  the  different  constituents.  Those 
who  carefully  study  the  sources  of  supply , and  make  up  their  orders 
early , and  purchase  considerable  quantities , are  able  to  get  better  quota- 
tions than  those  who  buy  at  the  busiest  season  of  the  year,  in  small  lots 
at  a time,  and  of  the  nearest  dealer. 

It  pays  quite  as  well,  proportionately,  to  use  good  business  methods 
in  the  purchase  of  fertilizer  supplies,  as  in  the  sale  of  produce. 


7 


in. 

Chemical  Analyses  of  Fertilizing  Materials. 


FORMS  OF  NITROGEN 


Readily  and  Completely  Soluble  in  Water. 

NITRATE  OF  SODA 
Furnishing  Nitrogen  in  Form  of  Nitrates. 


Station  Number. 

FROM  WHOM  RECEIVED. 

j Percentage  of 
Nitrogen. 

Cost  of  Nitro- 
gen pel*  lb. 

Cost  of  2,000  lbs. 
of  Nitrate  of 
Soda. 

5640 

"Edward  Reelrman  Middletown... 

15.94 

cts. 

13.2 

$12  20 
38  03 

5646 

Mnorestnwn  Granae 

15.94 

11.9 

5658 

J.  FT.  "Denise,  Freehold  

15.80 

12.7 

40  00 
50  00 

5673 

Station 

15.94 

15.7 

5709 

"FT.  Van  f!leef,  .Tr.,  Cliff'wood 

16.02 

14.7 

47  00 

5711 

Runyon  Field.  Round  Brook 

15.95 

14.1 

45  00 

5717 

J.  M.  White,  New  Brunswick  (ground) 

*15.09 

15.2 

46  00 

5741 

A.  D.  Anderson,  Trenton 

15.88 

13.9 

44  00 

5745 

Mullica  Hill  Grange 

15.74 

12.4 

39  00 

5802 

W.  S.  Riggs,  Hightstown 

16.06 

15.6 

50  00 

5822 

C.  Kraus,  Egg  Harbor  City 

15.85 

16.6 

52  50 

5866 

Philip  Lindsley,  Raritan 

15.53 

15.1 

47  00 

6024 

Henry  C.  McLean,  Red  Bank 

15.92 

13.3 

42  50 

■6057 

M.  S.  Crane,  Caldwell 

16.03 

14.8 

47  50 

Average  Cost  per  Pound 

14.2 

* This  sample  contained  impurities  due  to  grinding. 


SULPHATE  OF  AMMONIA 
Furnishing  Nitrogen  in  Form  of  Ammonia. 


[ Station  Number. 

FROM  WHOM  RECEIVED. 

Percentage  of 
Nitrogen. 

Cost  of  Nitro- 
gen per  lb. 

Cost  of  2,000  lbs. 
of  Sulphate  of 
j Ammonia. 

cts. 

5672 

Moorestown  Grange 

20.89 

16.9 

$70  45 

5746 

Mullica  Hill  Grange 

20.70 

20.5 

85  00 

5808 

H.  C.  Randolph,  Plainfield 

19.79 

18.5 

73  00 

6058 

M.  S.  Crane,  Caldwell 

19.65 

19.1 

75  00 

Average  Cost  per  Pound 

18.8 

8 


FORMS  OF  NITROGEN  INSOLUBLE  IN  WATER 

Furnishing  Nitrogen  in  Form  of  Organic  Matter. 
DRIED  BROOD. 


Station  Number,  j 

FROM  WHOM  RECEIVED. 

j Precentage  of 
Phosphoric  Acid. 

Percentage  of 
Nitrogen. 

Cost  of  Nitro- 
gen per  lb. 

Cost  of  2,000  lbs. 
of  Dried  Blood. 

cts. 

5641 

Edwin  Beekman,  Middletown 

0.24 

13.83 

19.8 

855  00 

6651 

Moorestown  Grange 

1.24 

13.19 

16.5 

* 

5659 

J.  H.  Denise,  Freehold 

0.29 

13.85 

16.0 

44  65 

5674  Station 

1.87 

8.37 

16.8 

30  00 

5712  Runyon  Field,  Bound  Brook 

1.23 

12.39 

14.0 

36  00 

5747]Mullica  Hill  Grange 

0.33 

12.61 

16.7 

42  50 

6025  H.  C.  McLean,  Red  Bank 

2.48 

11.73 

16.8 

42  00 

Average  Cost  per  Pound 

fl6.7 

*82.70  per  unit  of  Ammonia. 

f In  calculating  the  cost  per  pound  of  Nitrogen  the  value  of  the  Phosphoric  Acid  contained- 
in  the  samples  was  regarded. 


DRIED  AND  GROUND  FISH. 


Station  Number. 

FROM  WHOM  RECEIVED. 

Percentage. 

Cost 

Per  Pound. 

Cost  of  2,000  lbs. 
of  Fertilizer. 

Nitrogen. 

| Phosphoric 
| Acid. 

j Nitrogen. 

Phosphoric 

Acid. 

cts 

cts. 

5748 

Mullica  Hill  Grange 

9.96 

1.23 

15.9 

5 

833  00 

5424 

C.  Kraus,  Egg  Harbor  City 

8 18 

6.83 

19.7 

5 

39  00 

5827 

6.51 

9.98 

17.6 

5 

33  00 

5845 

il  “ “ “ 

6.51 

10.07 

16.8 

5 

32  00 

5846 

“ “ “ “ 

8.60 

7.98 

17.4 

5 

38  00 

Average  Cost  per  Pound 

17.5 

COTTON-SEED  MEAE. 


Station  Number. 

FROM  WHOM  RECEIVED. 

Percentage. 

Cost 

Per  Pound. 

| Cost  of  2,000  lbs. 
of  Fertilizer. 

Nitrogen. 

Available 

Phosphoric 

Acid. 

Potash. 

Nitrogen. 

Available 

Phosphoric 

Acid. 

Potash. 

5649 

H.  I.  Budd,  Mount  Holly 

7.45 

3.15 

1.44 

13.9 

6 

5 

826  00 

9 


GROUND  BONE  AND  TANKAGE. 


Station  Number. 

Cost  of  Nitrogen 
per  lb.  in — 

Cost  of  Phosphoric  Acid 
per  lb.  in — 

5 

,d 

6 rt 

a-’- 

d 

a3 

a>  d 

•S'” 

S,-ls 

d 

c3 

£ 

a> 

E"h 

Coarser  than 
iVin 

03 

.a 

a>  o 
n— 1 

SHs 

a 

o3 

£ 

Sh  . 

a)  a 

KHS 

d 

o3 

£ 

i-s 

d 

c3 

■d 

£ . 

S.2 

cts. 

cts. 

cts 

cts. 

cts. 

cts. 

cts. 

cts. 

5714 

Tankage 

14.8 

13.4 

10.7 

6.3 

4.9 

4.0 

2.6 

1.8 

5803 

19.1 

17.4 

13.9 

8.7 

6.4 

5.2 

3.5 

2.3 

5844 

“ tff  

17.7 

16.1 

12.8 

7.5 

5.9 

4.8 

3.2 

2.1 

6026 

a 

12.6 

11.5 

9.2 

4.2 

3.4 

2.3 

6032 

« 

19.9 

18.1 

14.5 

”8.4” 

6.6 

5.4 

3.6 

2.4 

5638 

Ground  Bone 

14.3 

13.0 

10.4 

6.1 

4.8 

3.9 

2.6 

1.7 

5941 

(<  ** 

19.9 

18.1 

14.5 

8.4 

6.6 

5.4 

3.6 

2.4 

5652 

i(  a 

11.1 

10.1 

8.1 

4.7 

3.7 

30 

1 2.0 

1.4 

6027 

n a 

14  3 

13  0 

10.4 

6.1 

4.8 

3.9 

2.6 

1.7 

5660 

ft!  ftft 

11.7 

10.6 

8.5 

4.9 

3.9 

3.2 

2.0 

1.4 

6059 

ftl  ftft 

13  8 

12.6 

10.0 

4 6 

3.8 

2.5 

5749 

n u 

13.6 

12.4 

9.9 

5.8 

4.5 

3.7 

2.5 

1.7 

5804 

(ft  iC 

15.8 

14.3 

11.5 

6.7 

5.3 

4.3 

2.9 

1.9 

5864 

H (( 

12.8 

11.6 

9.3 

5.4 

4.3 

3.5 

2.3 

1.6 

Average  Cost  per  Pound 

15.1 

13.7 

11.0 

6.1 

5.0 

1 4.1 

2.7 

1.9 

GROUND  BONE  AND  TANKAGE. 


Station  Number. 

FROM  WHOM  RECEIVED. 

Mechanical  Analysis. 

Percentage. 

Cost  of  2,000  lbs. 
of  Fertilizer. 

d 

03 

£ 

o>  a 
d” 

SHS 

d 

oS 

rg 

<D  p 

d 

d 

c3 

A 

M . 
d-<H 

d 

oS 

jd 

S 

w • 

sa 

Nitrogen. 

Phosphoric 

Acid. 

5714 

Runyon  Field,  Bound  Brook 

48 

25 

18 

9 

5.95 

13.14 

826  00 

5803 

W.  S.  Riggs,  Hightstown 

14 

46 

36 

4 

6.92 

6.25 

28  00 

5844 

C.  Kraus,  Egg  Harbor  City 

29 

41 

13 

17 

7.97 

7.51 

30  00 

6026 

H.  C.  McLean,  Red  Bank 

54 

41 

5 

0 

5 77 

12.15 

23  00 

6032 

W.  Vreeland,  New  Brunswick 

11 

18 

25 

46 

5.18 

15.62 

25  00 

5638 

E.  Beekman,  Middletown 

32 

30 

26 

12 

4.04 

24.60 

27  20 

5941 

H.  C.  Randolph,  Plainfield 

35 

18 

19 

28 

2.86 

26.07 

33  00 

5652 

Moorestown  Grange 

64 

22 

12 

2 

2.63 

26.94 

23  35 

6027 

H.  C.  McLean,  Red  Bank 

56 

27 

15 

2 

2.11 

23.42 

25  00 

5660 

J.  H.  Denise,  Freehold 

43 

27 

27 

3 

3.02 

25.68 

22  50 

6059 

M.  S.  Crane,  Caldwell 

43 

39 

18 

0 

4.05 

22  80 

28  00 

5749 

Mullica  Hill  Grange 

47 

22 

17 

14 

1.65 

29.30 

24  98 

5804 

W.  S.  Riggs,  Hightstown 

41 

18 

19 

22 

1.95 

28.20 

27  00 

5864 

Philip  Lindsley,  Raritan 

58 

24 

13 

5 

2.73 

26.44 

26  00 

10 


PLAIN  SUPERPHOSPHATES 


Furnishing  Soluble,  Reverted  and  Insoluble  Phosphoric  Acid, 

MANUFACTURED  FROM 

BONE  BRACK,  BONE  ASH,  ETC.,  ETC. 


o 

Phosphoric  Acid. 

00 

_Q 

a 

3 

5 

a 

o 

31 

CO 

FROM  WHOM  RECEIVED. 

Soluble  in 
Water. 

Soluble  in 

Ammonium 

Citrate. 

Insoluble. 

1 

Available. 

Cost  of 
Available 
per  lb. 

Cost  of  2,000 11 
of  Fertilizer. 

5642 

E.  Beekman,  Middletown 

17.74 

0.59 

0.51 

18.33 

cts. 

5.9 

$21  45 

5661 

J.  H.  Denise,  Freehold 

14.28 

0.81 

0.69 

15.09 

5.3 

16  00 

5676 

Station 

13.08 

0.95 

1.19 

14.03 

7.1 

20  00 

5718 

J.  M.  White,  New  Brunswick 

15.52 

1.13 

0.98 

16.65 

5.6 

18  75 

5739 

A.  D.  Anderson,  Trenton 

16.24 

0.07 

16.24 

13.02 

7.1 

23  00 
18  40 

5750 

Mullica  Hill  Grange 

9.82 

3.20 

6.40 

7.1 

5805 

5825 

W.  S.  Riggs,  Hightstown 

C.  Kraus,  Egg  Harbor  City 

16.24 

14.88 

0.42 

0.10 

2.59 

16.24 

15.30 

7.0 

8.3 

25  00 
*25  00 

5940 

H.  C.  Randolph,  Plainfield 

13.56 

0.41 

1.61 

13.97 

7.1 

20  00 

6028 

H.  C.  McLean,  Red  Bank 

13.36 

1.99 

4.07 

15.35 

6.5 

20  00 

6060 

M.  S.  Crane,  Caldwell 

17  00 

0.20 

0.23 

17.20 

6.5 

22  50 

Average  Cost  per  Pound 

6.5 

* Cost  per  ton  at  retail. 


SOUTH  CAROLINA  ROCK  AND  OTHER  MINERAL  PHOSPHATES. 


14 

<D 

Phosphoric  Acid. 

GO 

n 

a 

s 

fc 

a 

0 

01 
CO 

FROM  WHOM  RECEIVED. 

Soluble  in 
j Water. 

Soluble  in 

Ammonium 

Citrate. 

j Insoluble. 

Available. 

Cost  of 
Available 
per  lb. 

Cost  of  2,000  11 
of  Fertilizer. 

5647 

Moorestown  Grange 

10.86 

1.45 

2.79 

12.31 

cts. 

4.5 

$11  10 

5648 

10  50 

1.66 

3.46 

12.16 

4.6 

11  10 

5662 

J.  H.  Denise,  Freehold 

13.84 

1.03 

1.46 

14.87 

3.9 

11  60 

5677 

Station 

12.32 

1.36 

2.22 

13.68 

4.8 

13  00 

5751 

Mullica  Hill  Grange 

11.20 

1.48 

3.24 

12.68 

4.4 

11  10 

5843 

C.  Kraus,  Egg  Harbor  City 

Philip  Lindsley,  Raritan 

9.64 

2.44 

3.79 

12.08 

8.3 

*20  00 

5867 

13.76 

1.01 

1.45 

14.77 

4.4 

13  00 

5894 

W.  Pettit,  Salem.. 

11.26 

1.32 

2.97 

12.58 

4.6 

11  50 

6095 

F.  S.  Newcomb,  Vineland 

10.44 

1.43 

4.08 

11.87 

5.1 

12  00 

Average  Cost  per  Pound 

4.5 

* Cost  per  ton  at  retail. 


11 


GERMAN  POTASH  SALTS 

Readily  Soluble  in  Distilled  Water. 
MURIATE  OF  POTASH. 


Station  Number. 

FROM  WHOM  RECEIVED 

Percentage  of 
Potash. 

Cost  of  Potash 
per  lb. 

Cost  of  2,000  lbs. 
of  Muriate. 

5639 

E.  Beekman,  Middletown 

50.83 

cts. 

4.0 

840  20 

5645 

Moorestown  Grange 

52.27 

3.7 

38  25 

5679 

Station 

49.23 

4.2 

41  00 

5682 

J.  Fitzga,  Somerville 

54.33 

4.0 

43  50 

5684 

J.  H.  Denise,  Freehold 

52.90 

3.8 

40  00 

5715 

Runyon  Field,  Bound  Brook 

48.87 

4.0 

39  00 

5742 

A.  D.  Anderson,  Trenton 

52.30 

4.0 

42  00 

5752 

Mullica  Hill  Grange 

52.16 

3.7 

39  00 

5806 

W.  S.  Riggs,  Hightstown 

49.65 

4.4 

44  00 

5826 

C.  TC rans,  F.gg  Harbor  City 

47.99 

4.8 

46  50 

5868 

Philip  Lindsley,  Raritan 

51.57 

4.0 

41  00 

6096 

F.  S.  Newcomb,  Vineland 

49.78 

4.2 

42  00 

Average  Cost  per  Pound 

4.1 

GERMAN  POTASH  SALTS 

Readily  Soluble  in  Distilled  Water. 
HIGH-GRADE  SULPHATE  OF  POTASH. 


Station  Number. 

FROM  WHOM  RECEIVED. 

Percentage  of 
Potash. 

Cost  of  Potash 
| per  lb. 

Cost  of  2,000  lbs. 
j of  Sulphate. 

cts. 

5643 

E.  Beekman,  Middletown 

48.54 

5.2 

850  00 

5650 

Moorestown  Grange 

49.35 

4.4 

43  50 

5663 

J.  H.  Denise,  Freehold 

49.41 

4.4 

43  50 

5681 

Station 

48.30 

5.2 

50  00 

5716 

Runyon  Field,  Bound  Brook 

48.18 

5.0 

48  00 

5719 

J.  M.  White,  New  Brunswick 

48.84 

5.0 

48  40 

5865 

Philip  Lindsley,  Raritan 

49.12 

4.9 

48  00 

6061 

M.  S.  Crane,  Caldwell 

48.62 

4.7 

46  00 

Average  Cost  per  Pound 

4.9 

KAINIT. 


Station  Number. 

FROM  WHOM  RECEIVED. 

Percentage  of 
Potash. 

Cost  of  Potash 
per  lb. 

Cost  of  2,000  lbs. 
of  Kainit. 

5680 

Station 

11.58 

1350 

cts. 

5.4 

812  50 
14  00 

5708 

H.  Van  Cleef,  Jr.,  Cliffwood 

5.2 

5811 

Runyon  Field,  Bound  Brook 

12.06 

4.1 

10  00 

5893 

W.  Pettit,  Salem 

12.44 

4.4 

11  00 

6137 

J.  M.  White,  New  Brunswick 

12.45 

4.4 

11  00 

Average  Cost  per  Pound 

4.7 

12 


IV. 

Home  Mixtures;  Formulas;  Analyses. 

The  home  mixtures  here  reported  were  made  up  from  high-grade 
materials,  the  analyses  of  which  appear  in  the  previous  tables.  The 
formulas  used  were  in  most  cases  adopted  after  a study  by  the  farmers 
represented  of  the  conditions  of  soil  and  the  needs  of  the  crop,, 
in  the  localities  in  which  they  are  used.  A number  of  the  mixtures 
prepared  according  to  these  formulas  have  now  been  used  for  several 
years  with  entire  satisfaction.  With  the  exception  of  No.  5809, 
which  is  intended  for  fruit  trees,  they  are  largely  used  for  potatoes 
and  market-garden  crops. 


FORMULAS  USED  IN 


No.  5743.  A.  D.  Anderson, 
Trenton. 

200  lbs.  Nitrate  of  Soda. 

700  “ Dissolved  Bone. 

700  “ Bone-Black  Superphosphate. 
400  “ Muriate  of  Potash. 

2000 

No.  5807.  W.  S.  Riggs, 
Higlitstown. 

300  lbs.  Nitrate  of  Soda. 

400  “ Tankage 
400  “ Ground  Bone. 

400  “ Bone-Black  Superphosphate. 
500  “ Muriate  of  Potash. 

2000 

No.  5925.  D.  D.  Denise, 
Freehold. 

200  lbs.  Nitrate  of  Soda. 

300  “ Dried  Blood. 

200  “ Ground  Bone. 

900  “ Bone-Black  Superphosphate. 
200  “ Muriate  of  Potash. 

200  “ Sulphate  of  Potash. 

2000 

No.  5777.  G.  W.  F.  Gaunt, 
Mullica  Hill. 

150  lbs.  Nitrate  of  Soda. 

100  “ Sulphate  of  Ammonia. 

200  “ Dried  Blood. 

200  “ Ground  Fish. 

500  “ Ground  Bone. 

300  “ Bone-Black  Superphosphate. 
400  “ S.  C.  Rock  Superphosphate. 

350  “ Muriate  of  Potash. 

2200 

No.  5809.  H.  C.  Randolph, 
Plainfield. 

200  lbs.  Nitrate  of  Soda. 

800  “ Ground  Bone. 

400  “ Bone-Black  Superphosphate. 
600  “ Muriate  of  Potash. 

2000 


MAKING  THE  MIXTURES. 


No.  5812.  Runyon  Field, 
Bound  Brook. 

200  lbs.  Nitrate  of  Soda. 

400  “ Tankage 
1000  “ Dissolved  Bone. 

400  “ Muriate  of  Potash. 

2000 

No.  6094.  H.  C.  Randolph, 
Plainfield. 

200  lbs.  Nitrate  of  Soda. 

150  “ Sulphate  of  Ammonia. 

250  “ Dried  Blood. 

1100  “ Bone-Black  Superphosphate. 

300  “ Muriate  of  Potash. 

2000 

No.  6062.  M.  S.  Crane, 
Caldwell. 

150  lbs.  Nitrate  of  Soda. 

200  “ Sulphate  of  Ammonia. 

300  “ Ground  Bone. 

900  “ Bone-Black  Superphosphate. 

450  “ Sulphate  of  Potash. 

2000 

No.  5926.  Monmouth  Co.  Grange, 
Freehold. 

200  lbs.  Nitrate  of  Soda. 

300  “ Dried  Blood 
200  “ Ground  Bone. 

500  “ Bone-Black  Superphosphate. 

400  “ S.  C.  Rock  Superphosphate. 

200  “ Muriate  of  Potash. 

200  “ Sulphate  of  Potash. 

2000 

No.  6039.  J.  S.  Collins, 
Moorestown. 

200  lbs.  Nitrate  of  Soda. 

ICO  “ Sulphate  of  Ammonia. 

300  “ Cotton-Seed  Meal. 

500  “ Ground  Bone. 

600  “ S.  C.  Rock  Superphosphate. 

300  “ Muriate  of  Potash. 


2000 


13 


It  is  claimed  by  manufacturers  of  mixed  fertilizers  and  by  others 
who  have  not  given  the  matter  attention,  that  farmers  cannot  make 
mixtures  that  will  compare  favorably  in  mechanical  condition  with 
those  produced  by  machinery  made  expressly  for  the  purpose. 

A careful  study  of  this  point  was  made  last  year  and  reported  in 
Bulletin  No.  93 ; the  results  obtained  showed  that  the  ten  home  mix- 
tures examined  exceeded  in  fineness  and  condition  the  leading  brands 
of  the  manufacturers  themselves.  It  is  not  disputed  that  the  manu- 
facturers can  make  better  mixtures ; the  fact  is  that,  on  the  whole, 
they  do  not. 

A mechanical  analysis  was  made  of  the  samples  of  home  mixtures 
received  this  year.  The  standard  of  fineness  or  perfect  mechanical 
composition  was  made  one  twenty- fifth  of  an  inch  in  diameter;  that 
is,  the  condition  was  regarded  as  perfect  if  all  of  the  material  passed 
through  a sieve,  the  holes  of  which  were  one  twenty- fifth  of  an  inch 
in  diameter. 

The  average  fineness  of  the  home  mixtures  examined  this  year  is 
here  shown  in  connection  with  the  results  obtained  last  year : 


FINER  THAN.  COARSER  THAN. 

in.  in.  ts  in. 

per  cent.  per  cent.  per  cent. 

Home  Mixtures 1894  78  17  5 

“ “ 1893  79  14  7 

Manufactured  Brands 1893  77  16  7 


The  fineness  of  the  mixtures  examined  this  year  is  practically 
identical  with  that  obtained  in  1893,  and  it  is  evident  that  this  meas- 
ure of  fineness,  in  connection  with  dryness,  which  all  the  mixtures 
possessed,  permits  of  ready  and  even  distribution,  the  chief  consid- 
eration when  the  quality  of  the  mixtures  is  not  regarded.  It  must 
be  remembered,  however,  as  suggested  last  year,  that  fineness  or 
mechanical  condition  is  a relative  term ; that  is,  fineness  in  a mixture 
which  has  been  made  from  materials  containing  the  fertilizer  constitu- 
ents in  relatively  insoluble  forms,  is  evidently  of  greater  importance 
than  fineness  in  a mixture  which  has  been  made  from  materials  con- 
taining easily- soluble  and  readily-available  constituents. 


Composition  of  Home  Mixtures. 

The  actual  analyses  of  the  different  mixtures  are  given  in  the  fol- 
lowing table.  The  cost  of  the  materials  used  in  making  them  is  also 
compared  with  the  estimated  commercial  value  of  the  mixture  at 
Station’s  valuation  : 


14 


Table  of  Analyses. 


Station  Number. 

NITROGEN. 

PHOSPHORIC  ACID. 

Potash. 

Cost  per  Ton. 

Valuation  per  Ton  at 
Station’s  Prices. 

Value  Exceeds  Cost. 

DO 

© 

"3 

Sh 

2 

a 

o 

£ 

From  Ammonia  Salts,  j 

From  Organic  Matter. 

Soluble  in  Water. 

Soluble  in  Citrate  of 
| Ammonia. 

Insoluble. 

I 

Total  Available. 

5743 

1.42 

0.10 

0.96 

8.48 

0.06 

0.17 

8.54 

14.03 

$31  00 

$31  00 

5777 

1.10 

1.25 

2.36 

3.38 

4.47 

4.13 

7.85 

8.16 

29  81 

35  08 

$5  27 

5807 

1.69 

2.57 

3.76 

4.29 

2.14 

8.05 

11.96 

32  07 

35  69 

3 62 

5809 

0.74 

0.11 

1.83 

1.74 

5.75 

9.47 

7.49 

11.48 

33  40 

32  43 

—0  97 

5812 

1.34 

0.12 

2.10 

5.14 

3.34 

1.74 

8 48 

10.84 

30  00 

32  76 

2 76 

5925 

1.37 

0.14 

2.97 

6.68 

2.47 

0.81 

9.15 

10.41 

28  49 

36  60 

8 11 

5926 

1.61 

0.12 

2.14 

5.84 

1.88 

1.32 

7.72 

14.23 

27  61 

36  90 

9 29 

6062 

0.92 

1.90 

1.41 

8.52 

1.04 

1.57 

9.56 

9.74 

35  74 

37  84 

2 10 

6039 

1.82 

0.93 

2.20 

3.42 

4.10 

5.72 

7.52 

3 53 

29  00 

31  44 

2 44 

6094 

1.76 

1 

1.52 

1.34 

6.64 

0.94 

1.21 

7.58 

7.13 

31  33 

31  84 

1 

0 51 

The  chemical  analyses  of  these  mixtures,  with  two  exceptions,  com- 
pare very  favorably  with  their  theoretical  composition,  calculated 
from  the  analyses  of  the  raw  materials,  and  from  the*  weights  used  in 
the  formulas.  The  majority  of  them  agree  remarkably  well  with 
their  calculated  guarantee.  This  point  of  evenness  of  mixing  is 
important  both  in  home  mixtures  and  manufactured  brands,  particu- 
larly when  the  needs  of  the  crop  are  understood,  though  variations 
in  this  respect  are  not  so  serious  as  may  be  inferred  from  the  labored 
calculations  of  certain  writers. 

In  the  majority  of  cases  the  amounts  used  per  acre  are  too  small 
to  make  the  variations  in  composition  apparent  in  the  growth  of  the 
crop. 

In  the  use  of  concentrated  manures,  the  first  consideration  is  qual- 
ity of  the  constituents ; second  is  quantity  applied,  and  the  third  is 
proportion  of  the  constituents. 

A study  of  the  manufactured  brands  shows  that  wide  variations 
occur  between  the  guaranteed  and  actual  composition,  much  wider  in 


15 


a large  number  of  cases  than  has  ever  been  shown  in  the  home  mix- 
tures examined  by  this  Station. 

If  farmers  in  their  application  of  manufactured  brands  use  the 
guarantee  as  a guide  as  to  the  proportions  of  plant-food  for  the  vari- 
ous crops,  they  are,  on  the  whole,  led  much  farther  astray  than  in  the 
use  of  home  mixtures,  yet  writers  who  state,  without  foundation  of 
fact,  that  farmers  cannot  mix  evenly,  and  condemn  home  mixtures  on 
that  ground,  entirely  ignore  this  point. 


Quality  of  the  Mixtures. 

All  of  the  mixtures  are  high  grade ; they  contain  large  amounts  of 
the  best  forms  of  plant*  food.  On  the  average  fifty  per  cent,  of  the 
total  nitrogen  exists  in  forms  soluble  in  water,  while  the  organic 
nitrogen  is  largely  drawn  from  the  best  sources.  The  “ insoluble  ” 
phosphoric  acid,  a form  of  this  constituent  which  varies  in  “ avail- 
ability ” according  to  its  source,  is  largely  drawn  from  animal  bone,  a 
product  more  highly  regarded  as  a source  of  this  element  in  its  un- 
treated state  than  mineral  phosphate. 

The  potash  is  in  all  cases  derived  either  from  high-grade  muriate 
or  sulphate  of  potash. 

The  question  of  concentration  is  also  important ; in  this  respect  the 
mixtures  this  year  are  fully  equal  to  those  previously  examined, 
though  slightly  differing  in  the  proportion  of  the  plant-food  contained 
in  them. 

The  average  composition  of  all  the  complete  fertilizers  or  manu- 
facturers’ mixtures  examined  by  the  Station  last  year,  and  the  average 
of  the  home  mixtures  for  1893  and  1894,  are  as  follows : 

Available. 


NITROGEN.  PHOSPHORIC  ACID.  POTASH, 

per  cent.  per  cent.  per  cent. 

Manufacturers’  Mixtures 1893  2.69  7.54  4.58 

Home  Mixtures 1894  3.99  8.19  10.15 

“ “ 1893  4.03  8.44  9.36 


High-grade  mixtures  cannot  be  made  from  low-grade  goods.  This 
fact  indicates  either  that  a large  number  of  the  manufacturers’  mix- 
tures must  contain  low-grade  materials  or  that  “ make- weight  ” has 
been  added  to  the  high-grade  products  used. 


16 


This  point  has  been  discussed  in  former  reports,  where  it  was 
shown  that,  in  the  purchase  of  low-grade  and  cheap  fertilizers,  enor- 
mous sums  are  spent  annually  for  mixing,  bagging,  shipping  and  sell- 
ing material  that  is  absolutely  worthless.  In  purchasing  high-grade 
raw  materials  and  mixing  at  home,  high-grade  mixtures  are  the 
legitimate  result,  and  expenses  in  this  direction  are  avoided. 

The  statement  of  the  fact  that  the  value  of  a fertilizer  depends 
upon  the  kind,  quality  and  amounts  of  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid  and 
potash  contained  in  it  will  bear  frequent  repetition  even  at  this  late 
day.  True  progress  in  the  use  of  manures  depends  largely  upon  the 
thorough  appreciation  of  this  principle  by  the  consumer. 


Cost  of  Home  Mixtures. 

These  home  mixtures  represent  the  purchase  of  at  least  800  tons ; 
the  average  cost  is  $30.85  and  the  average  valuation  $34.16,  or  a gain 
of  $3.31  per  ton  over  Station’s  valuations,  which  are  intended  to,  and 
actually  do,  fairly  represent  the  retail  cash  cost  of  the  fertilizer  con- 
stituents in  the  raw  materials  at  factory.  The  cost  per  ton  is  10.7 
per  cent  less  than  the  valuations ; in  the  manufacturers’  mixtures 
examined  in  1893  it  was  shown  that  the  cost  per  ton  was  4,0.0  per 
cent,  greater  than  the  valuations. 


v. 

Home  Mixing;  The  Experience  of  Farmers. 

The  main  object  of  this  study  of  fertilizing  materials  by  the  Station 
is  to  furnish  farmers  with  detailed  and  accurate  information  in  refer- 
ence to  the  sources,  composition  and  value  of  the  various  products 
which  enter  into  the  manufacture  of  commercial  fertilizers. 

In  connection  with  this  work,  the  conditions  under  which  the  pur- 
chase of  raw  materials  is  advisable,  either  for  home-mixing  or  for 
direct  use  unmixed,  have  in  the  past  been  pointed  out. 

Many  farmers  have  adopted  this  method  of  purchasing  their  sup- 
plies, and  their  experience,  particularly  in  the  making  and  using  of 
home  mixtures,  which  in  many  cases  now  covers  a series  of  years,  has 
been  reported  to  the  Station  in  answer  to  our  inquiries.  These 
farmers,  numbering  sixty,  whose  replies  were  received  in  time  to  be 


17 


included  in  this  bulletin,  and  representing  ten  counties,  are  making 
farming  their  business,  and  are  among  the  most  successful  in  the 
State.  The  questions  asked  covered  in  the  main  the  following  points : 

1.  The  number  of  years  that  home  mixtures  have  been  used? 

2.  The  amount  used  yearly  ? 

3.  Whether  the  quantity  of  fertilizers  used  was  greater  or  less  than 
when  this  method  was  first  adopted  ? 

4.  Whether  they  had  any  difficulty  in  getting  good  mechanical 
condition  ? 

5.  The  cost  of  mixing  per  ton  ? 

6.  Whether  the  results  obtained  were  satisfactory  ? 

7.  Whether  it  pays  to  buy  raw  materials  and  mix  at  home  ? 

8.  The  advantages  or  disadvantages  of  this  method  of  purchasing 
fertilizers  ? 

1.  Three  report  having  used  home  mixtures  for  20  years;  twelve, 
from  10  to  12  years;  twenty- three,  from  5 to  10  years;  seventeen, 
from  2 to  5 years ; and  five,  this  as  their  first  year. 

2.  Seven  farmers  use  over  25  tons  per  year — one  as  high  as  40 
tons;  sixteen  use  15  tons  or  more;  fourteen  use  10  to  15  tons;  six- 
teen use  5 to  10  tons ; and  six  less  than  5 tons. 

3.  Forty-two  of  the  sixty  use  more  now  than  when  they  began ; 
five,  three  to  four  times  as  much,  and  eleven  about  the  same  quantity, 
varying  according  to  the  area  of  the  best-paying  crop. 

4.  Fifty-four  state  that  they  do  not  have  any  difficulty  in  getting 
good  mixtures ; four  had  some  difficulty  at  first,  while  one  states  that 
his  home  mixtures  excel  in  mechanical  condition  any  manufactured 
brand  he  has  ever  used. 

5.  Considerable  variation  is  reported  in  the  cost  of  mixing ; two 
report  an  expense  of  $1.50  per  ton;  fifteen  say  that  it  costs  $1  per 
ton;  sixteen  estimate  the  cost  at  75  cents;  nineteen  at  50  cents;  one 
at  60  cents ; two  at  25  cents,  and  two  do  not  regard  the  mixing  as  an 
extra  cost.  They  all  report  the  mixing  as  being  done  by  the  ordinary 
labor  of  the  farm,  when  other  work  is  not  pressing,  and  therefore  no 
extra  expenditure. 

6.  Fifty-four  farmers  report  that  the  results  are  thoroughly  satis- 
factory, both  in  regard  to  the  yield  and  quality  of  crop.  Five  report 


18 


this  year  as  their  first  year,  though  their  crops  are  looking  quite  as 
well  as  where  other  brands  were  used. 

7.  Fifty-three  state  that  it  pays  them  well  to  buy  raw  materials  and 
mix  for  themselves ; five  have  not  yet  secured  results,  and  one  thinks 
he  can  do  about  as  well  in  buying  the  regular  brands. 

8.  With  two  exceptions  all  agree  that  the  main  advantage  derived 
is  that  the  actual  constituents  cost  much  less  than  in  the  same  grade 
of  goods  purchased  either  directly  from  manufacturers  or  from 
dealers.  Twenty-six  state  that  the  saving  is  from  $6  to  $10  per  ton* 
and  that  further  advantages  are — 

First,  that  they  know  exactly  what  they  are  using.  Second,  that 
they  can  use  the  best  forms  of  plant-food.  Third,  that  the  essential 
constituents  can  be  varied  to  suit  the  requirements  of  various  soils 
and  crops. 

One  farmer  reports  that  the  third  point  alone  has  been  of  the 
greatest  service  to  him,  enabling  him  to  make  profitable,  crops  which 
were  formerly  considered  almost  impossible  to  raise. 

But  three  farmers  report  any  disadvantage.  One  states  that  there 
is  considerable  loss  from  handling;  another  that  it  is  difficult  to 
procure  the  materials  in  small  quantities  at  a reasonable  price,  while 
a third  considers  it  a disadvantage  to  pay  cash. 

The  above  summary  of  the  practical  experience  of  farmers  is, 
perhaps,  sufficient  evidence  of  the  value  of  home-mixing,  and  the 
strongest  argument  that  could  be  presented  for  the  adoption  of  this 
method  of  purchasing  supplies. 

The  main  conditions  to  be  observed,  and  which  are  necessary,  in 
order  to  make  the  method  entirely  feasible  and  truly  economical,  are — 
first,  that  the  supplies  should  be  purchased  in  considerable  quantities ; 
second,  that  they  should  be  purchased  early,  and  prepared  before  the 
beginning  of  the  busy  season  on  the  farm;  third,  that  contracts 
should  be  on  a cash  basis. 

These  reports  also  show  indirectly  that  it  pays  to  use  fertilizers, 
since  thirty-seven  out  of  the  sixty  use  more  than  a carload  annually ; 
sixteen  use  a half  carload  or  more,  and  nearly  all  use  a great  deal 
more  than  when  they  first  began. 

Such  a large  and  increasing  annual  expenditure  for  fertilizing 
materials,  reaching  as  high  as  $1,000  in  a number  of  cases,  could  not 
be  continued  for  any  great  length  of  time  at  a loss.  It  is  a fact  that 


19 


those  who  use  the  largest  amounts  are  among  the  most  prosperous 
farmers.  They  use  large  amounts  because  they  know  it  pays  to 
provide  sufficient  food  to  insure,  as  far  as  possible,  maximum  produc- 
tion, under  the  existing  conditions  of  climate  and  season. 

No  stronger  proof  than  the  above  is  required  to  show  that  in  farm- 
ing, under  present  conditions,  it  is  of  the  greatest  usefulness  to  know 
what  constitutes  plant-food,  the  best  methods  of  buying,  and  how  to 
use  to  the  best  advantage. 

EDWARD  B.  VOORHEES, 

Director. 

New  Brunswick,  N.  J.,  July  30th,  1894. 


w f w 


SOME  INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  SHADE  TREES. 


NEW  JERSEY 

Agricultural  College 


Experiment 


103 


NEW  JERSEY  AGRICULTURAL  COLLEGE  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


BOARD  OF  CONTROL. 


The  Board  of  Trustees  of  Rutgers  College  in  New  Jersey. 


EXECUTIVE  COMMITTEE  OF  THE  BOARD. 

AUSTIN  SCOTT,  Ph.D.,  LL.D.,  President  of  Rutgers  College,  Chairman. 
Hon.  GEORGE  C.  LUDLOW,  HENRY  R.  BALDWIN,  M.D.,  LL.D., 

Hon.  HENRY  W.  BOOKSTAVER,  LL.D.,  JAMES  NEILSON,  Esq. 


STAFF  OF  THE  STATION. 

AUSTIN  SCOTT,  Ph.D.,  LL.D.,  Director. 

Professor  JULIUS  NELSON,  Ph  D.,  Biologist. 

Professor  BYRON  D.  HALSTED,  Sc.D  , Botanist  and  Horticulturist. 
Professor  JOHN  B.  SMITH,  Sc.D.,  Entomologist. 

ELTSHA  A.  JONES,  B.S.,  Superintendent  of  College  Farm. 

IRVING  S.  UPSON,  A.M.,  Disbursing  Clerk  and  Librarian. 
CHARLES  A.  POULSON,  Mailing  Assistant. 

LEONORA  E.  BURWELL,  Clerk  to  the  Director. 

AUGUSTA  E.  MESKE,  Stenographer  and  Typewriter. 


NEW  JERSEY 

Agricultural  College  Experiment  Station. 
BULLETIN  103. 

OCTOBER  8,  1894. 


Some  Insects  Injurious  to  Shade  Trees. 


BY  JOHN  B.  SMITH,  ENTOMOLOGIST. 


“A  barren,  detested  vale,  yon  see,  it  is ; 

The  trees,  though  summer,  yet  forlorn  and  lean  ” 

— Titus  Andronicus. 

Nothing  makes  a worse  appearance  than  shade  trees  injured  by 
disease  or  insects — trees  without  or  with  but  ragged  foliage,  or 
with  leaves  that  are  seared  and  brown  in  midsummer.  In  many 
of  our  New  Jersey  cities,  towns  and  villages,  in  which  shade 
trees  form  an  important  element  of  beauty,  insect  injury  has 
been  so  marked  for  two  or  three  years  last  past  as  to  bring  me 
many  letters  of  inquiry.  During  the  season  of  1894  matters 
were  so  much  worse  than  ever  before  that-  even  the  authorities 
were  aroused  in  some  instances  and  sufficient  general  interest 
developed  to  make  it  seem  desirable  to  prepare  a brief  account 
of  our  most  troublesome  species  for  general  information,  and  as 
.a  guide  to  methods  for  their  destruction. 

Chief  among  all  the  troublesome  forms  is 

The  Elm-Leaf  Beetle. 

( Galeruca  xanthomelsena , Sell  rank.) 

This  insect  makes  its  appearance  early  in  spring,  just  as  soon 
^s  the  elms  leaf  out,  and  sometimes  almost  as  soon  as  the  buds 
begin  to  unfold,  in  the  form  of  an  oblong  beetle  about  one-fourth 


4 


of  an  inch  in  length,  yellowish  in  color,  and  with  a black  stripe 
on  each  wing-cover.  This  period  is  usually  a little  after  the 
middle  of  May  in  the  latitude  of  New  Brunswick,  varying  with 
the  season,  and  about  ten  days  earlier  or  later  at  the  extreme 
south  or  extreme  north  of  the  State. 

The  first  indications  of  their  presence  are  small  round  holes  in 


Fig.  1. 

Elm-leaf  beetle:  a,  eggs;  6,  larvae;  c,  adult;  e,  eggs,  enlarged;  /,  sculpture  of  eggs;. 
g,  larva,  enlarged;  h,  side  view  of  greatly-enlarged  segment  of  larva  ; i,  dorsal  view  of  same; 
j,  pupa,  enlarged ; k,  beetle,  enlarged ; l,  portion  of  elytron  of  beetle,  greatly  enlarged.  (After 
Riley.) 

the  more  mature  leaves.  These  rapidly  increase  in  number  as 
the  foliage  develops,  until  the  tree  looks  as  if  loads  of  small  shot 
had  been  fired  through  it  in  every  direction. 

Late  in  May  oviposition  begins,  and  soon  thereafter,  in  early 
June,  patches  of  little  yellow  eggs,  somewhat  bottle-shaped  and 
set  on  end  in  a double  row,  make  their  appearance  on  the  under 
side  of  the  leaves  in  all  parts  of  the  trees.  They  continue  to 
increase  in  number  until  after  the  middle  of  June,  decreasing 


afterward  until,  before  July  1st,  very  few  living  eggs  remain. 
At  about  the  same  date  the  beetles  that  laid  the  eggs,  having 
accomplished  their  life  work,  disappear  completely,  and  are  suc- 
ceeded by  their  larvae,  which  began  hatching  from  the  eggs  first 
laid,  early  in  June.  These  increase  in  number  rapidly,  and  soon 
the  trees  show  the  effects  of  their  appearance.  Unlike  their 
parents,  they  do  not  eat  the  entire  leaf  tissue,  but  scrape  from 
cither  the  upper  or  under  surface  only  the  superficial  layers  of 
cells.  This  causes  such  injury  that  the  eaten  spots  in  the  leaf 
turn  brown  and  die,  the  foliage  eventually  becoming  dry,  burnt 
by  the  sun  and  falling  in  midsummer. 

The  larvae  causing  this  injury  are  small,  blackish  slugs,  soft 
and  a little  moist  to  the  touch,  yellowish  underneath  and  with 
six  little  black  legs  anteriorly.  They  are,  when  full  grown,  about 
three-eighths  of  an  inch  in  length  and  furnished  with  little  black 
tubercles,  giving  rise  to  tufts  of  stiff  blackish  hair.  In  Figure  1, 
b and  g,  the  larvae  are  well  and  characteristically  shown.  In 
from  twenty-five  to  thirty  days  they  become  full  fed  and  ready 
to  transform  to  pupae.  They  cease  feeding  and  begin  their 
journey  to  the  surface,  crawling  down  twig  to  branch,  to  trunk, 
and  down  the  trunk  to  the  ground,  where,  among  the  grass  or 
whatever  rubbish  may  be  handy,  they  cast  their  larval  skins  and 
appear  as  soft,  bright-yellow  pupae.  These  pupae  are  inactive 
and  helpless,  with  all  the  members  of  the  future  beetle  separately 
encased  and  closely  tucked  in.  Thousands  of  them  may  be 
easily  found  at  the  base  of  a very  medium-sized  elm,  and  up  the 
trunk,  under  all  loosened  bark  scales,  and  in  all  other  crevices, 
hundreds  may  be  found,  representing  the  ill  or  weary  that  be- 
come discouraged  or  otherwise  unable  to  reach  the  ground.  This 
brings  the  time  to  the  end  of  June,  and  a week  later,  or  about 
July  7th,  new  beetles  begin  to  make  their  appearance,  increasing 
constantly  in  number  until  the  end  of  that  month  or  later,  and 
again  eating  round  holes  in  such  foliage  as  escaped  earlier  in  the 
season.  Early  in  August  the  earliest  beetles  begin  to  seek  winter 
quarters  and  gradually  decrease  in  number ; though  stragglers 
will  be  found  throughout  September,  especially  at  lights,  to  which 
they  are  readily  attracted.  Winter  quarters  are  found  in  lofts 
and  attics,  in  out-houses,  barns  or  other  shelter,  in  the  cracks  of 
posts  and  fences,  or  even  of  telegraph  poles ; in  fact  wherever 


6 


cover  is  attainable.  The  College  belfry  at  New  Brunswick  is  a 
favorite  lodging  place,  quarts  of  the  beetles  having  been  found 
there  in  early  September. 

Further  south,  at  Washington,  D.  C.,  there  is  a second  and 
sometimes  even  a third  brood,  but  in  New  Jersey  we  have  only 
one,  and,  occasionally,  a very  partial  second  brood. 

Quite  usually,  where  a tree  has  been  almost  or  entirely  stripped 
of  foliage,  a second  growth  makes  its  appearance  late  in  August, 
and  this  is  again  riddled  by  such  beetles  as  remain.  They  prefer 
this  to  the  less  succulent  foliage  that  has  passed  the  summer,, 
even  if  entirely  uninjured.  On  such  new  foliage  may  be  found 
the  few  eggs  and  larvse  of  the  partial  second  brood  already  men- 
tioned. I greatly  doubt  whether  on  the  mature  foliage  they 
could  come  to  full  growth. 

There  is  no  necessity  for  any  further  description  of  the  injury 
inflicted,  which  is  obvious  to  all,  and  we  may  proceed  at  once  to 
the  question  of 

Remedies. 

These  insects  can  be  controlled,  and  the  trees  entirely  pre- 
served by  two  or  three  sprayings  with  either  London  purple  or 
Paris  green,  at  the  rate  of  one  pound  of  either  in  one  hundred 
and  fifty  gallons  of  water,  one  pound  of  stone  or  shell  lime,  or 
two  gallons  of  milk  of  lime,  being  added  to  prevent  possible 
injury  to  the  foliage.  Two  quarts  of  glucose  or  molasses  adds 
greatly  to  the  sticking  power  of  the  poison  used. 

Arsenate  of  lead  is  a new  material  which  may,  eventuallyr 
replace  Paris  green  or  London  purple  for  insecticide  purposes,  as 
it  is  absolutely  insoluble  in  water,  and  may  be  applied  in  almost 
any  strength  without  danger  of  injury  to  foliage.  It  is  formed 
by  adding  four  ounces  arsenate  of  soda  and  eleven  ounces  acetate 
of  lead  to  one  hundred  gallons  of  water.  The  chemicals  dis- 
solve readily  and  unite  to  form  a white  precipitate  which  is 
arsenate  of  lead  and  which  remains  in  suspension  a long  time, 
settling  very  slowly,  and  thus  requiring  less  stirring  than  either 
Paris  green  or  London  purple.  Two  quarts  of  glucose  or  molasses 
to  one  hundred  gallons  of  the  mixture  will  add  so  greatly  to  its 
sticking  qualities  that  even  a heavy  shower  will  not  wash  it  off 
completely. 


If  less  than  one  hundred  gallons  are  desired,  the  mixture  can 
be  made  in  the  same  proportions,  or  the  material  may  be  dis- 
solved and  the  precipitate  formed  in  one  gallon  of  water,  stirring 
thoroughly  to  secure  complete  combination  of  the  chemicals. 
This  concentrated  mixture  can  then  be  added  in  proper  propor- 
tion to  the  tank  or  other  vessel  from  which  spraying  is  done. 
Care  must  be  taken  to  have  it  well  stirred  before  pouring  out. 
If  the  chemicals  are  purchased  in  quantity,  the  arsenate  of  lead 
will  be  somewhat  cheaper  than  either  Paris  green  or  London 
purple.  Purchased  at  retail,  the  cost  will  be  greater. 

Spraying  should  be  first  done  when  the  beetles  are  beginning 
to  feed  in  spring,  and  when  the  little  round  holes,  already 
described,  become  noticeable.  This  spraying  is  intended  to 
reach  the  adult  insects  and  to  kill  them  off,  in  large  part,  before 
eggs  are  laid.  The  second  spraying  should  be  done  as  soon  as 
the  larvae  begin  hatching  from  the  eggs,  which  can  be  known  by 
direct  observation  or  by  the  appearance  of  scraped  leaves.  This 
is  intended  to  reach  the  young  larvae,  which  succumb  very 
readily.  As  egg-laying  and  hatching  continue  through  a long 
period,  a third  spraying  ten  days  after  the  second  is  advisable, 
especially  if  it  has  rained  during  the  interval,  and  this  should  be 
sufficient  to  protect  the  trees.  The  third  spraying  is  not  a neces- 
sity unless  it  rains ; but  is  desirable. 

On  large  trees,  it  will  be  impossible  to  reach  all  points  so  as  to 
kill  all  insects,  and  some  will  become  full  grown  and  will  make 
their  way  down  the  trunk  to  the  base  of  the  tree.  When  this  is 
noticed,  a strong  brine,  whale-oil  soap-suds,  kerosene,  kerosene 
emulsion  diluted  nine  times,  or  even  hot  water,  should  be  poured 
on  the  ground  around  the  base  of  the  trees  for  a distance  of  two 
feet,  and  this  should  be  repeated  at  intervals  of  five  days  as  long 
as  new  additions  are  noticed. 

For  trees  in  gardens  or  on  private  grounds  I would  recommend 
the  three  sprayings  and  the  destruction  of  the  larvae  and  pupae 
at  the  base  of  the  trees.  In  public  parks  and  for  street  trees,  the 
two,  or,  if  it  rains,  three  sprayings  will  be  sufficient. 

It  looks  like  a great  task  to  spray  a large  elm,  or  a large  num- 
ber of  trees  in  a park  or  town,  and  yet  it  is  easier  than  it  seems. 
The  elms  on  the  College  campus  at  New  Brunswick  are  probably 
as  large  as  most  of  those  to  be  found  in  the  State,  and  they  have 


8 


been,  during  the  past  season,  sprayed  twice  and  fairly  well  pro- 
tected. They  have,  indeed,  been  sprayed  almost  every  year  since 
I have  been  at  the  Station,  with  good  results,  one  year  only  being 
entirely  omitted  to  give  a basis  for  comparison. 

Any  good  spraying  outfit  will  serve  for  small  trees  or  where 
only  a few  trees  are  to  be  protected.  For  large  trees  and  for  pro- 
tecting street  trees  there  should  be  a tank,  mounted  on  a wagon, 
and  holding  from  100  to  150  gallons  of  water.  To  this  should 
be  attached  a double-acting,  brass-cylinder  force-pump,  with  full 
hose  couplings,  capable  of  supplying  a good  pressure  to  two  lines 
of  hose.  Such  pumps  can  be  obtained  from  almost  any  manu- 
facturer. That  in  use  at  the  Station  is  made  by  the  Gould’s 
Pump  Company,  but  others,  equally  good,  are  made  by  other 
manufacturers.  Two  lengths  of  hose  are  required,  sufficient  to 
reach  well  into  large  trees,  and,  in  addition,  a bamboo  pole  or 
other  light  rod  should  be  used  to  carry  the  nozzle  into  the  foliage 
and  away  from  the  person  holding  it.  A light  ladder  reaching 
to  the  point  of  branching  will  complete  the  equipment  except  as 
to  nozzles.  Spraying  can  be  done  by  two  men  from  among  the 
branches  of  one  or  two  trees  to  the  extreme  tips  of  those  75  feet 
in  height,  one  man  at  the  pump  being  sufficient. 

The  nozzle  to  be  used  is  an  important  feature.  For  small 
trees,  the  Nixon  nozzle,  made  by  the  Nixon  Nozzle  and  Machine 
Company,  Dayton,  Ohio,  or  the  Yermorel  nozzle,  made  by  most 
of  the  makers  of  insecticide  machinery,  are  entirely  satisfactory 
and  most  economical.  For  large  or  street  trees,  where  a full  hose 
is  used,  a graduating  nozzle,  such  as  is  used  in  lawn  sprinkling, 
is  as  satisfactory  as  anything  I have  found.  It  is  more  wasteful 
than  the  nozzles  above  mentioned,  but  can  be  changed  from  a 
spray  to  carry  a long  distance  or  to  throw  a solid  jet,  if  desirable, 
almost  at  once.  It  is  capable  of  making  a very  fine  spray  at 
close  quarters  and  there  is  no  danger  of  clogging. 

Varieties  Attacked. 

Not  all  species  of  elms  are  equally  susceptible.  The  insect  is 
an  imported  one,  its  original  home  being  in  Europe,  and,  nat- 
urally enough,  European  elms  are  most  troubled,  though  none 
are  exempt.  According  to  observations  made  by  Prof.  C.  V. 
Riley,  at  Washington,  Ulmus  campestris  is  the  greatest  favorite, 


9 


and  next  to  it  come  U.  suberosa,  U.  effusa  and  U.  montana.  The 
latter  is  the  least  infested  of  the  imported  varieties,  except 
U.  parvifolia  ( siberica ),  on  which  the  larvae  seem  to  be  unable  to 
live  at  all.  Ulmus  americana  was  only  a little  attacked,  and 
was  found  to  be  the  most  desirable  form  so  far  as  its  freedom 
from  insect  pests  is  concerned.  In  setting  out  elms,  therefore, 
our  American  varieties  should  be  preferred.  The  most  sus- 
ceptible are  those  having  thin,  smooth  leaves. 

Next  in  order,  in  some  localities  at  least,  is 


The  Wood  Leopard  Moth,  or  Imported  Elm  Borer. 

(Zenzera  Pyrina,  L ) 

This  is  also  an  imported  insect,  and  its  appearance  in  the 
larval  and  adult  condition  is  well  enough  shown  in  the  figures 


Fig.  2. 


The  wood  leopard  moth : a,  b,  larva  from  above  and  from  side ; c,  male  moth ; d,  female 
moth ; e,  larval  burrow.  All  natural  size. 

herewith  given,  which  are  reproduced  from  “ Insect  Life  ” by  the 
courtesy  of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture.  It  is, 
so  far  as  my  records  go,  confined  at  the  present  time  to  Jersey 


10 


City,  Hoboken  and  Newark,  and  to  the  immediate  vicinity  of 
these  cities.  It  occurs  as  a serious  pest  in  the  park  and  shade 
trees  of  New  York  and  Brooklyn,  and  has  caused  the  death  of 
numerous  trees  of  quite  a wide  range  of  species.  In  the  city  of 
Newark,  it  is  distinctly  the  most  serious  of  the  tree  pests,  attack- 
ing all  the  species  of  maple  and  elm  and  also,  less  seriously,  the 
sweet  gum,  tulip  tree,  the  lindens  and  several  others.  The 
horse-chestnut  and  Ailanthus  are  not  attacked,  though  the  former 
is  also  infested  in  Central  Park,  New  York. 

The  moths  make  their  appearance  in  May  or  June,  continuing 
through  July  and  into  August,  and  are  readily  attracted  to  light. 
It  has  become  the  most  common  species  seen  around  the  electric 
lights  in  the  cities  named,  and  each  moth  represents  a larva  that 
has  fed  for  at  least  two  years  in  the  wood  of  a neighboring  tree, 
while  every  female  represents  the  possibility  of  hundreds  of 
other  larvae  to  follow  the  same  life  history. 

The  eggs  are  laid  by  the  female  moth  on  the  branches,  prob- 
ably placed  just  into  the  bark,  and  the  young  larvae  bore  at  once 
into  the  wood,  usually  at  the  crotch  of  a small  branch,  or  at  a 
node,  and  work  downward ; sometimes  just  under  the  bark, 
sometimes  in  the  solid  wood.  They  grow  apace  and  get  intb 
larger  branches,  still  working  downward  as  a whole,  but  often 
varying  in  course ; sometimes  making  it  circular,  so  as  to  girdle 
the  stick  they  feed  in.  For  at  least  two  years  they  feed,  rarely 
emerging  from  the  burrow,  though  they  do  occasionally  come- 
out  for  the  purpose  of  changing  their  quarters  and  beginning 
their  destructive  work  elsewhere.  Then  they  change  to  some- 
what slender,  brown  pupae,  and  these  wriggle  themselves  through 
the  bark  in  due  season,  and  soon  after  the  moths  emerge. 


Remedies. 

An  insect  with  the  life  history  above  given  is  beyond  the  reach 
of  ordinary  insecticides.  There  is  no  period  in  its  life  history 
when  we  can  reach  it  by  any  application  made  on  the  trees.  I 
have  already  stated  that  a great  many  moths  are  attracted  to  the 
electric  lights,  and  there  meet  death.  It  is  to  this,  I believe,  that 
we  owe  the  failure  to  spread  more  rapidly  from  Newark  and 
other  cities  into  the  surrounding  country. 


11 


Active  measures  are  possible  in  one  direction  only.  Every 
badly-infested  tree  should  be  cut  down  and  burnt,  as  its  death 
would  be  a mere  matter  of  time  at  the  best.  Trees  infested 
toward  the  tip  only  should  be  cut  back  hard  in  winter,  and  what- 
ever is  taken  off  should  be  burnt. 

Unlike  some  of  the  other  introduced  species,  this  insect  is  also 
a sad  pest  in  its  native  home.  Mr.  J.  W.  Tutt,  in  a little  book 
recently  issued,  says : “ Then  the  caterpillar  of  the  wood  leopard 
moth,  whose  almost  transparent  wings  are  covered  with  bright 
metallic,  greenish-black  dots,  does  immense  damage  to  trees  in 
our  London  parks.  Almost  all  the  branches  that  come  tumbling 
about  our  ears  during  a high  wind  are  snapped,  owing  to  the 
damage  done  by  this  dreadful  scourge,  whilst  it  is  estimated  that 
one  female  alone  lays  above  a thousand  of  her  minute  salmon- 
coloured  eggs.” 

Mr.  E.  B.  Southwick,  Entomologist  to  the  New  York  Park 
Commissioners,  says  that  this  is  the  most  troublesome  of  all  the 
insects  infesting  the  New  York  City  parks.  Wagon-loads  of 
twigs  and  branches  are  trimmed  off  in  Central  Park  annually, 
and  the  insect  seems  now  to  have  been  somewhat  checked.  The 
openings  to  the  burrows  made  by  the  larvae  are  easily  seen  by 
the  trained  eye,  and  where  they  are  in  the  trunks  of  valuable 
trees  or  shrubs,  or  in  branches  that  cannot  be  easily  spared,  a 
few  drops  of  bisulphide  of  carbon  are  forced  into  the  burrow  by 
means  of  an  ordinary  oil  can  holding  half  a pint,  such  as  is  used 
by  mechanics,  and  a little  dab  of  putty  closes  the  opening.  The 
vapor  of  the  bisulphide  will  penetrate  the  full  length  of  the 
tunnel,  and  will  kill  the  larva  wherever  it  may  be  in  it,  without 
injury  to  the  tree. 

I would  recommend,  wherever  this  borer  has  gained  a footing, 
cut  down  and  burn  all  badly-infested  trees  where  the  trunk  and 
larger  branches  are  involved.  Where  the  trunks  are  free  and 
the  larger  branches  are  not  badly  infested,  cut  back  as  hard  as 
the  tree  will  easily  bear,  and  burn  all  the  cuttings.  The  tree 
should  then  be  carefully  examined,  and  wherever  a hole  is 
noticed,  bisulphide  should  be  forced  into  it  and  the  opening 
should  be  closed  with  putty.  All  this  can  be  done  during  the 
winter.  During  the  summer  the  trees  should  be  kept  under 


12 


inspection  and  wherever  signs  of  borers  are  noticed,  either  the 
infested  wood  should  be  cut  out  or  the  borer  destroyed  by  means 
of  bisulphide  of  carbon  as  above  described. 


The  White-Marked  Tussock-Moth. 

( Orgyia  leucostigma,  S . & A ) 

The  most  abundant  caterpillar  to  be  found  in  our  shade  trees 
is  that  herewith  figured,  and  it  attacks  a very  great  variety  of 
species,  very  few  only  being  exempt.  When  it  is  full  grown  it 
is  a very  pretty  creature  and  quite  striking  in  appearance.  The 
head  and  two  little  elevated  spots  on  joints  nine  and  ten  are  bright 
vermilion-red  ; the  back  is  velvety  and  there  are  three  bright- 
yellow  lateral  lines.  The  whole  body  is  thinly  clothed  with 
long,  pale-yellow  hairs,  originating  from  small,  wart-like  eleva- 
tions. Four  cream-colored  or  white  dense  brushes  of  hair  are  in 
a row  on  the  back,  on  the  middle  of  the  fourth,  fifth,  sixth  and 


Fig.  3. 

Larva  of  white-marked  tussock-moth.  (After  Riley.) 


seventh  joints,  while  from  each  side  of  the  head  arises  a long, 
plume-like  tuft  of  black  hair,  projecting  forward  and  outward. 
A similar  plume  projects  upward  from  the  last  joint. 

These  caterpillars  are  found  scattered  all  over  the  trees  in 
June,  move  about  freely  and,  when  suddenly  disturbed,  they 
drop  from  their  perch,  suspending  themselves  by  a silken  thread 
which  is  attached  to  the  leaf  from  which  they  were  started. 
Toward  the  middle  or  end  of  June  they  become  full  grown  and 
begin  to  spin  whitish  cocoons,  intermixed  with  their  own  hairs, 
in  all  sorts  of  convenient  places.  The  angles  of  wooden  tree- 
boxes  become  filled  with  them,  every  projection  is  made  use  of  as 
a shelter,  and  on  the  trunks  of  trees  themselves  great  numbers 


13 


make  use  of  every  crevice.  In  this  cocoon  the  larvae  change  to 
pupae,  the  male  much  the  smaller  and  showing  rudiments  of  the 
future  wings.  Less  than  two  weeks  thereafter,  the  final  change 
takes  place,  and  the  adult  insects  emerge — the  sexes  strikingly 
dissimilar  in  appearance.  The  male  has  two  pairs  of  broad, 
dusty-gray  wings,  the  anterior  crossed  by  narrow  black  lines  and 
with  a white  spot  toward  the  hind  angle.  The  feelers  or  antennae 
are  broadly  feathered  and  the  fore  -legs  are  plumed  and  tufted. 
The  female,  on  the  other  hand,  is  entirely  without  wings  and 
somewhat  slug-like,  consisting  principally  of  an  abdomen  which 
is  enormously  distended  with  eggs.  When  she  emerges  from  the 


Fig.  4. 


White  marked  tussock-moth  : a,  female  on  its  egg-mass  ; b,  young  larva  suspended  by  its 
thread ; c,  pupa  of  female ; d,  pupa  of  male ; e,  male  moth.  (After  Riley.) 

pupa  she  crawls  upon  the  cocoon,  to  which  she  clings  for  the  bal- 
ance of  her  life.  Egg-laying  begins  soon  after  the  male  has 
found  her,  and  the  eggs  are  laid  upon  the  old  cocoon  and  cov- 
ered with  a frothy  mass,  which  soon  becomes  hard  and  brittle 
and  is  snow  white.  From  these  eggs  a second  brood  of  cater- 
pillars emerges  in  July  and  the  same  life  history  is  repeated,  the 
adults  of  the  second  brood  appearing  in  September.  The  eggs 
laid  at  this  time  remain  on  the  trees  during  the  winter.  White 
at  first,  they  gradually  darken  by  exposure  to  dust  and  rain  and 
before  spring  resemble  their  surroundings  fairly  well. 

Remedies. 

We  can  keep  this  insect  in  check  with  comparatively  little 
trouble.  All  the  egg  masses  on  the  trees  should  be  removed 
early  in  the  winter,  while  they  are  prominent  on  the  bare  trunks 
and  limbs,  and  every  tree  that  is  thoroughly  cleaned  will  be 


14 


exempt  for  the  season  to  come,  except  for  such  larvse  as  may 
crawl  on  it  from  adjoining  trees.  As  the  females  are  incapable 
of  flight,  there  can  be  no  spread  from  them,  and  the  wandering 
habit  of  the  caterpillar  just  before  pupation  provides  for  the 
spread  of  the  insect.  The  egg  masses,  as  they  are  taken  off, 
should  be  placed  in  a basket  and  afterward  burnt  in  a furnace. 

A few  men  employed  in  cleaning  trees  during  the  winter  in 
the  cities,  towns  and  villages  of  our  State  would  perhaps  relieve 
distress  in  some  cases,  and  would  certainly  pay  well  in  the  im- 
proved appearance  of  the  trees  during  the  ensuing  summer. 

Elms  that  are  sprayed  for  the  beetle  need  no  special  treatment 
for  this  insect,  which  will  be  killed  off  by  the  same  application 
which  destroys  the  major  pest. 

If  winter  treatment  is  not  resorted  to,  a spraying  with  either 
of  the  arsenites,  as  recommended  for  the  elm-leaf  beetle,  should 
be  made  about  the  middle  of  June. 


General  Considerations. 

All  trees  have  their  insect  enemies,  and  all  parts  sustain  their 
own  peculiar  pests.  Some  attack  them  in  life  ; some  only  when 
they  are  weakened  by  disease,  age  or  other  adverse  circumstances, 
hastening  death  and  giving  room  each  year  for  other  species 
which,  eventually,  if  not  interfered  with,  reduce  them  to  dust. 
Not  all  species  of  trees  suffer  equally,  however,  and  in  many  cases 
trees  and  insects  are  so  adapted  that  both  live  and  flourish,  while 
in  yet  other  instances  the  insects  find  it  difficult  to  flourish  in 
surroundings  in  which  the  trees  yet  do  fairly  well. 

It  should  be  remembered  as  a matter  of  primary  importance 
that,  other  things  equal,  healthy  trees  are  least  susceptible  to 
insect  attack,  and  the  effort  should  be,  in  all  cases,  to  have 
healthy,  clean,  well-fed  trees.  All  shade  trees  should  be  scrubbed 
each  winter  with  a stiff  brush  and  whale-oil  soap-suds,  to  destroy 
the  numerous  insects  hibernating  in  the  crevices,  and  to  remove 
fungous  growths,  mosses  or  other  parasitic  vegetable  life.  Sickly 
or  infested  shoots  or  branches  should  always  be  cut  out  promptly 
when  noticed,  and  the  cuttings  should  be,  in  all  cases,  burnt  to 
prevent  the  transformation  of  any  larvse  that  the}^  may  contain. 


15 


Classified  List  of  Shade  Trees. 

The  following  list  of  shade  trees,  based  on  that  prepared  by 
Mr.  B.  E.  Fernow,  Chief  of  Division  of  Forestry,  U.  S.  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture,  for  the  Brooklyn  Tree  Planting  and  Foun- 
tain Society,  is  arranged  in  the  order  of  least  susceptibility  to 
insect  attack,  though  none  are  entirely  exempt.  It  is  not  in- 
tended to  suggest  that  they  are  the  best  in  the  order  named, 
except  so  far  as  freedom  from  insect  attack  in  New  Jersey  is  con- 
cerned. Dr.  Halsted  has  kindly  marked  the  list  for  fungous 
troubles,  and  the  numbers  in  parenthesis  following  the  names 
indicate  the  order  of  their  freedom  from  disease,  No.  (1)  indi- 
cating the  species  least  affected. 

Tree  of  Heaven.  Ailanthus  glandulosus.  (3) 

Ginko,  or  Maiden-hair  Tree.  Ginkgo  biloba.  (1) 

Tulip  Tree.  Liriodendron  iulipifera.  (6) 

Sweet  Gum.  Liquidamber  styracifiua.  (2) 

American  Linden.  Tilia  americana.  (7) 

European  Linden.  Tilia  vulgaris.  (8) 

Small -leafed  Linden.  Tilia  microphylla.  (9) 

Cottonwood  Poplar.  Pop  ulus  monilifera.  (19) 

Horse-chestnut.  JEsculus  hippocastanum.  (18)  • 

Oriental  Plane  Tree.  Platanus  orientalis.  (20) 

American  Plane  Tree.  Platanus  occidentalis.  (21) 

Box  Elder.  Negundo  aceroides.  (10) 

All  Oaks.  Quercus  Sp.  (11) 

All  Maples.  Acer  Sp.  (12) 

All  Willows.  Salix  Sp.  (13) 

American  Elm.  Ulmus  americana.  (17) 

Slippery  Elm  Ulmus  fulva.  (16) 

Scotch  Elm.  Ulmus  montana.  (15) 

European  Elm.  Ulmus  campestris.  (14) 

Black  Locust.  Robinia  pseudacacia.  (5) 

Honey  Locust.  Gleditschia  triacanthos.  (4) 


W r/r^: 


ANALYSES  AND  VALUATION  OF 
COMPLETE  FERTILIZERS,  GROUND  BONE  AND 
MISCELLANEOUS  SAMPLES. 


NEW  JERSEY 

AGRICULTURAL 

Experiment  Station 

104 


NEW  JERSEY 

Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 

BULLETIN  104. 

NOVEMBER  19,  1894. 


Analyses  and  Valuations  of  Complete  Fertilizers, 
Ground  Bone  and  Miscellaneous  Samples. 


BY  EDWARD  B.  VOORHEES, 
LOUIS  A.  VOORHEES, 
JOHN  P.  STREET. 


Two  bulletins  containing  fertilizer  analyses  are  issued  by  this 
Station  annually,  each  having  a specific  purpose.  Bulletin  No. 
102,  issued  June  30th,  contained  the  analyses  of  90  samples  of 
fertilizing  materials  and  10  samples  of  mixtures  made  from  such 
materials  by  the  farmers  themselves.  The  main  object  of  this 
work  was  to  show  the  sources  and  composition  of  the  materials 
•containing  the  best  forms  of  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid  and 
potash,  the  cost  per  pound  of  the  ingredients,  and  the  advantages 
of  making  home  mixtures. 

A large  number  of  these  samples  were,  however,  examined  for 
the  purpose  of  determining  for  the  purchaser  the  number  of 
pounds,  or  “ units,”  of  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid  or  potash  con- 
tained in  the  products  bought,  the  purchaser  agreeing  to  pay  for 
the  actual  amount  of  plant-food  found  by  the  Station.  It  is 
obvious  that  the  analyses  for  this  purpose  were  of  direct  useful- 
ness in  protecting  both  the  dealer  and  the  purchaser,  in  case  of 
unusual  variation  in  the  composition  of  the  products. 


4 


In  this  bulletin  the  analyses  and  valuation  of  224  samples  of 
mixed  fertilizers,  29  samples  of  ground  bone,  17  samples  of  mis- 
cellaneous products,  and  9 samples  of  wood  ashes  are  reported. 

The  main  object  of  this  work  is  to  show  whether  the  actual 
composition  of  thg  various  products  corresponds  with  their  guar- 
antee as  required  by  law.  It  is,  therefore,  of  direct  value  in  de- 
tecting fraud  and  in  showing  carelessness  on  the  part  of  the 
manufacturer  in  the  preparation  of  the  mixtures,  though  the 
analyses  are  sufficiently  complete  to  give  definite  information 
as  to  the  kind  of  materials  used  in  making  the  different  brands, 
and  also  in  showing  whether  there  is  sufficient  variation  in  the 
composition  of  the  brands  now  offered  to  fulfill  special  soil  and 
crop  requirements. 

Chemical  Composition  of  Mixed  Fertilizers. 

The  samples  examined  this  year  represent  the  product  of  sixty- 
four  manufacturers  and  dealers,  and  were,  in  most  cases,  taken 
by  regularly-appointed  inspectors,  many  of  whom  have  performed 
this  work  for  the  Station  since  1884. 

On  the  whole  the  products  are  of  fairly  good  quality,  and  as  a 
rule  contain  as  much  total  plant-food  as  is  guaranteed.  In  many 
cases,  however,  it  is  not  distributed  in  the  proportions  stated  by 
the  guarantee,  which  indicates  either  a lack  of  skill  or  of  careful- 
ness in  their  preparation. 

In  two  cases  only  the  consumer  receives  less  of  all  of  the 
plant-food  constituents  than  is  guaranteed.  One  product,  repre- 
sented by  sample  No.  5710,  is  decidedly  fraudulent  in  character. 
It  shows  but  fifty-five  hundredths  of  one  per  cent  of  nitrogen, 
and  less  of  phosphoric  acid  and  potash  than  is  contained  in  good 
marl,  which  evidently  forms  the  basis  of  the  mixture.  Its  com- 
mercial value  is  $3.68  per  ton,  and  its  selling  price  is  $25. 

The  sample  represented  a car-load  lot  bought  directly  from  the- 
manufacturer.  The  analysis  was  reported  early  in  the  season  to 
the  purchaser,  with  the  statement  that  the  product  was  practically 
valueless. 

Guarantees  and  Their  Uses. 

A careful  comparison  of  the  actual  composition  of  the  various 
brands,  with  their  accompanying  guarantee,  shows  that  the  chief 


difficulty  in  respect  to  keeping  the  guarantee  is  in  the  case  of 
phosphoric  acid. 

Ninety-six  of  the  224  brands,  or  43  per  cent.,  contain  less 
phosphoric  acid  than  is  guaranteed ; 27  brands  contain  less 
potash  and  20  less  nitrogen.  In  the  case  of  nitrogen,  particu- 
larly, the  actual  amount  contained  is  in  many  cases  greatly  in 
excess  of  the  guarantee. 

As  already  stated,  the  object  of  the  guarantee  is  to  indicate  to 
the  purchaser  the  amount  and  proportion  of  the  plant-food  con- 
stituents contained  in  the  different  brands.  If  the  brand  con- 
tains less  of  any  one  constituent  than  is  guaranteed,  the  consumer 
may  secure  damages  under  the  law.  The  fact  that  the  brand 
contains  the  amount  guaranteed  is,  however,  of  but  little  import- 
ance in  itself,  since  there  is  no  obligation  placed  upon  the  manu- 
facturer to  guarantee  any  specified  amount.  It  is  useful  only  in 
connection  with  intelligence  on  the  part  of  the  purchaser,  who 
understands  the  relation  that  should  exist  between  guarantee 
and  selling  price. 

The  importance  of  this  knowledge  may  be  illustrated  in  the 
case  of  two  brands  from  the  same  manufacturer,  and  reported  in 
this  bulletin : Brand  No.  1 is  guaranteed  to  contain  2 per  cent, 
of  ammonia  or  its  equivalent,  1.64  per  cent,  of  nitrogen,  8 per 
cent,  of  “ available”  phosphoric  acid  and  1.50  per  cent,  of  actual 
potash,  and  sells  for  $28  per  ton.  Brand  No.  2 is  guaranteed  to 
contain  3 per  cent,  of  ammonia  or  its  equivalent,  2.46  per  cent, 
of  nitrogen,  10  per  cent,  of  “ available  ” phosphoric  acid  and  10 
per  cent,  of  actual  potash,  and  sells  for  $32  per  ton.  The  com- 
mercial valuation  of  No.  1,  when  reaching  its  full  guarantee,  is 
$17  per  ton.  The  valuation  of  No.  2,  on  the  same  basis,  is 
$30.10 — a difference  of  $13.10  per  ton,  though  the  selling  price 
differs  by  only  $4.  In  other  words,  though  the  guarantee  is 
reached  in  each  case,  the  manufacturer  offers  in  brand  No.  2 
55  per  cent,  more  plant-food  for  the  same  money  than  in  brand 
No.  1. 

The  above  illustration  is  not  an  isolated  example  of  how  the 
keeping  of  guarantees  may  mislead  those  who  compare  brands 
only  on  that  basis.  It  is  obvious,  therefore,  that  an  inspection 
which  shows  that  the  brands  reach  their  guarantee  is  limited  in 


6 


its  usefulness.  Consumers  must  study  the  relation  of  guarantee- 
to  selling  price. 

The  importance  of  a strict  conformity  of  guarantee  and  com- 
position in  reference  to  proportion  of  the  constituents,  is  also 
worthy  of  notice. 

A farmer  buys  a special  fertilizer  for  potatoes,  or  other  crop, 
because  he  believes  from  experience  and  experiment  that  certain 
proportions  of  plant-food  constituents  are  better  than  others.  He 
must  trust  to  the  guarantee  for  guidance  in  this  respect ; if  the 
actual  composition  does  not  correspond  to  the  guarantee  in  pro- 
portion of  the  constituents,  his  results  in  the  field  may  be  quite  as 
disappointing  as  if  he  received  less  plant-food  than  was  offered. 


Station's  Valuations  and  Selling  Prices. 

The  Station’s  valuation  per  ton  is  derived  from  applying  to 
the  different  ingredients  the  schedule  of  prices  published  in  Bul- 
letin No.  102  ; it  is  intended  to  show  the  retail  cash  cost  of  the 
amounts  of  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid  and  potash  contained  in 
one  ton  if  they  were  bought  at  factory  in  the  form  of  raw 
materials,  unmixed.  The  difference  between  selling  price  and 
Station’s  value  shows,  therefore,  the  charges  that  are  made  for 
mixing,  bagging,  shipping  and  selling  the  different  brands. 

The  selling  price  per  ton,  entered  in  the  tables,  is  the  price  at 
the  point  where  sampled.  These  prices  differ  in  the  various 
localities  of  the  State,  due  mainly  to  differences  in  freight  rates 
from  point  of  production  to  consumers’  depot,  the  amount  sold 
and  commission  charged. 

In  certain  States  a definite  though  arbitrary  sum  for  these 
charges  is  fixed  by  the  Station  and  added  to  the  valuation.  This 
method  has  not  been  adopted  here,  since  the  only  effect  is 
to  reduce  the  difference  between  valuation  and  selling  price. 
Farmers  know  what  is  a fair  charge  for  freight  from  shipping 
points  to  their  localities,  and  can  make  such  calculations  them- 
selves, with  the  further  advantage  that  they  apply  to  their  own 
conditions. 

The  average  composition,  selling  price  and  commercial  valua- 
tion per  ton  of  all  the  brands  of  mixed  fertilizers  examined  in 


7 


1891,  1892,  1893  and  1894,  as  well  as  the  percentage  difference 
between  valuation  and  selling  price,  or  the  charges  for  mixing, 
bagging  and  selling,  are  shown  in  the  following  tabulation : 


Total  Total  Available  Insoluble  Selling  Station  Percentage 

Nitrogen.  Phos.  Acid.  Phos.  Acid.  Phos.  Acid.  Potash.  Price.  Valuation.  Difference. 


1891.... 

. 2.71 

10.12 

7.29 

2.83 

4.21 

$34.23 

$25.31 

35.2 

1892.... 

. 2.74 

10.38 

7.70 

2.67 

4.50 

34.19 

25.66 

33.2 

1893.... 

. 2.69 

10.23 

7.54 

2.69 

4.58 

34.11 

24.41 

39.7 

1894.... 

. 2.87 

10.40 

7.37 

3.03 

4.94 

34.17 

24.83 

37.6 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  average  composition  for  the  four 
years  is  remarkably  uniform,  with  an  apparent  tendency  toward 
a higher  content  of  nitrogen  and  potash,  and  a decrease  in  avail- 
able phosphoric  acid.  The  selling  price  is  also  very  uniform  ; 
the  difference  between  highest  and  lowest  is  but  12  cents  per  ton. 
The  percentage  charges  for  mixing,  bagging  and  selling  are, 
however,  much  greater  in  1893  and  1894  than  in  1891  and  1892. 

If  these  charges  were  sufficient  in  former  years,  the  selling 
price  now  should  be  reduced,  in  order  to  correspond  with  the  de- 
crease in  cost  of  both  fertilizing  material  and  other  supplies. 
The  purchaser,  however,  has,  even  under  these  conditions  of 
apparent  extravagant  average  charges,  an  abundant  opportunity 
for  selection.  In  34  brands  the  average  charge  is  less  than  20 
per  cent.,  while  in  90  others  it  does  not  reach  30  per  cent. 

It  was  shown  in  Bulletin  No.  102  that  manufacturers  were 
willing  to  sell  the  fertilizing  ingredients  in  raw  materials  at  less 
prices  per  pound  on  the  average  than  those  used  in  computing 
Station’s  values.  If  the  charges  here  shown  are  legitimate,  then 
it  appears  that  in  a large  number  of  cases  the  laborers  who  mix, 
bag  and  handle  these  goods,  the  railroads  which  carry,  and  the 
dealers  who  sell  are  entitled  to  greater  returns  for  their  labor  than 
the  farmer  who  uses  the  product.  At  the  average  cost  per  pound 
of  the  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid  and  potash  in  these  fertilizers, 
it  would  cost  the  farmer  36  cents  to  return  to  the  soil  the  fer- 
tilizing ingredients  carried  off  in  every  bushel  of  wheat  sold,  28 
cents  to  return  the  amount  contained  in  a bushel  of  corn,  30 
cents  to  return  that  contained  in  a bushel  of  rye,  18  cents  for  that 
contained  in  a bushel  of  oats,  and  $7.16  to  return  the  fertilizer 
constituents  removed  in  a ton  of  timothy  hay. 


8 


Prices  for  these  crops  are  low,  and  those,  too,  which  remove  rela- 
tively less  of  the  expensive  fertilizer  constituents — potatoes,  vege- 
tables and  small  fruits — and  which  require  for  their  production  a 
larger  expenditure  for  labor,  and  proportionately  more  available 
plant-food,  in  order  to  secure  maximum  crops,  also  bring  much 
less  now  than  formerly. 

It  is  clear  that  at  these  prices  for  plant-food  a very  narrow 
margin  is  left  to  the  farmer  in  the  sale  of  crops  for  legitimate 
charges  for  labor  of  growing,  handling,  selling  and  other 
expenses. 

Farmers  cannot  completely  change  their  methods  of  practice 
if  they  would,  and,  furthermore,  it  is  advisable  to  increase  the 
productive  power  of  their  soils  to  the  maximum  point.  To  do 
this  at  a profit  they  must  know  not  only  what  their  soils  and 
crops  need  in  the  way  of  plant-food,  but  they  must  get  what  they 
need  at  a much  lower  cost  per  pound  than  is  possible  in  the 
average  mixed  fertilizer. 

The  Station  has  repeatedly  stated  that  it  paid  to  use  fertilizers, 
and  it  reiterates  that  statement  now,  even  under  the  existing 
unfavorable  conditions  of  farming,  since  the  opinion  is  based 
upon  the  indisputable  testimony  of  actual  facts.  The  main  con- 
ditions are,  however,  economy  in  their  purchase,  and  rational 
use  both  of  natural  and  artificial  supplies. 

Farmers  may  accomplish  this — I.  By  reducing  the  cost  per 
pound  of  plant-food  constituents  in  mixed  fertilizers.  II.  By 
limiting  the  exportation  of  plant-food  from  the  farm.  III.  By 
purchasing  less  of  the  expensive  element  nitrogen. 

I.  The  cost  of  plant-food  in  mixed  fertilizers  may  be  reduced 
by  purchasing  on  the  “unit”  basis.  The  “unit”  means  1 per 
cent,  on  the  basis  of  a ton,  and  is  20  pounds.  For  example,  a 
unit  of  “ available  ” phosphoric  acid  means  20  pounds,  and  a 
superphosphate  guaranteed  to  contain  12  units  means  that  it 
contains  240  pounds  per  ton. 

An  illustration  of  the  advantages  of  this  method  may  be 
shown  by  applying  it  to  the  brands  referred  to  on  page  5.  Brand 
No.  1 contains — according  to  guarantee — 2 units  of  ammonia,  8 
of  “ available  ” phosphoric  acid  and  1 J of  potash ; and  No.  2 


9 


contains  3 units  of  ammonia,  10  of  “ available”  phosphoric  acid 
and  10  of  potash.  Assuming  $3.50  per  unit  for  ammonia,  $1.30 
for  “available”  phosphoric  acid  and  $1  for  potash — which  would 
be  fair  prices  this  year  at  point  of  consumption — No.  1 would 
cost  $18.90  and  No.  2 $33.50  per  ton,  as  against  $28  for  No.  1 
and  $32  for  No.  2,  the  prices  now  charged  under  the  present 
system  of  buying  on  the  ton  basis. 

That  is,  agree  to  pay  for  what  the  mixture  actually  contains  at 
a definite  price  per  pound  or  “unit”  of  plant-food  constituents 
contained  in  it,  the  number  of  pounds  or  “units”  to  be  deter- 
mined by  an  analysis  at  the  Experiment  Station,  as  is  now  done 
in  the  case  of  unmixed  goods. 

Where  20  tons  or  more  are  purchased,  and  agreements  are 
made  on  this  basis,  the  Station  will  make  the  analysis  free  of 
charge. 

A number  of  the  leading  manufacturers  have  signified  their 
willingness  to  sell  on  this  plan,  and  it  is  quite  likely  that  all 
would  do  so,  since  it  is  eminently  fair*  to  both  parties  to  the 
transaction,  and  because  manufacturers  now  buy  their  supplies 
on  this  basis. 

II.  The  exportation  of  plant-food,  particularly  in  general 
farming  where  stock  is  kept,  may  be  reduced  by  a judicious  ex- 
change of  grain  and  hay  for  concentrated  feeds,  rich  in  the  fer- 
tilizing constituents,  coupled  with  careful  saving  and  intelligent 
application  of  the  manure  made. 

III.  Sixty  per  cent,  of  the  price  of  the  average  fertilizer  is 
now  paid  for  nitrogen.  The  necessity  for  purchased  nitrogen, 
particularly  in  general  farming  and  fruit-growing,  may  be 
greatly  decreased  by  sowing  larger  areas  of  leguminous  crops,, 
which  gather  nitrogen  from  the  air. 

Crimson  clover,  which  does  not  interfere  with  regular  rotations, 
and  which  may  be  sown  under  a wide  variety  of  conditions,  is  a 
valuable  crop  for  this  purpose. 

These  facts  have  been  pointed  out  again  and  again  in  the  Sta- 
tion’s reports  and  bulletins,  and  are  worthy  of  careful  study. 
Successful  farmers  do  study  them  and  act  accordingly. 


10 


Ground  Bone. 

The  samples  of  ground  bone  examined  this  year,  on  the  whole, 
reach  their  guarantee,  show  a good  degree  of  fineness,  and  with 
few  exceptions  a relatively  high  valuation.  A larger  number 
than  usual,  however,  belong  to  the  class  “ steamed  bone,”  which 
is  not  indicated  by  the  manufacturer  in  the  naming  of  the  brand, 
and  is  liable  to  mislead  as  to  the  composition  if  guarantees  are 
not  carefully  examined.  Steamed  bone  contains  less  nitrogen 
and  more  phosphoric  acid  than  raw  bone. 

A number  of  these  samples  doubtless  represent  local  products, 
which  are  limited  in  quantity. 


Valuations. 


The  schedule  of  prices  used  in  computing  values  in  1893-4, 
as  well  as  the  average  per  cent,  of  fineness  of  the  bone,  are  shown 


below  : 


Finer  than  in, 

u « 1 (( 

5 ■ 

U U 1 (C 

T 2 

Coarser  than  “ . 


Average  per  cent.  Nitrogen  Phosphoric  Acid 


of  Fineness. 

Per  Pound. 

Per  Pound. 

1893. 

1894. 

1893. 

1894. 

1893. 

1894. 

43 

43 

15c. 

16Jc. 

6c. 

5£c. 

27 

27 

12c. 

13c. 

5c. 

4£c. 

20 

22 

9c. 

12c. 

4c. 

3c. 

10 

8 

7c. 

7c. 

3c. 

2c. 

The  average  per  cent,  of  fineness  is  practically  identical  with 
that  shown  in  1893.  The  schedule  prices  of  the  nitrogen  in  the 
three  finer  grades  are  considerably  higher,  while  those  of  phos- 
phoric acid  are  lower  in  all  the  grades  this  year.  This  change 
in  the  schedule  has  the  effect  of  relatively  increasing  the  valua- 
tion of  the  pure  bone,  and  of  decreasing  that  of  the  steamed 
bone.  The  Station’s  average  valuation  and  the  selling  price  per 
ton  are  practically  identical,  showing  that  on  the  average  the 
nitrogen  and  phosphoric  acid  contained  in  bone  are  obtained  at 
the  prices  per  pound  indicated  in  the  schedule. 


Miscellaneous  Products. 


The  miscellaneous  samples,  which  on  the  whole  represent  good 
products,  require  notice  particularly*  in  regard  to  the  brand 


11 


names.  The  name  “ Improved  Superphosphate,”  for  instance, 
•doubtless  conveys  the  idea  to  many  that  the  superphosphate  con. 
tained  in  it  is  an  improvement  on  other  superphosphates,  while 
the  obvious  intention  of  the  manufacturer  in  so  naming  the 
brand  is  to  signify  that  it  differs  from  mineral  superphosphates, 
the  addition  of  nitrogenous  material  making  it  correspond  with 
•dissolved  bone  in  composition.  The  correct  name  for  such  a 
product  is  “nitrogenous  superphosphate.” 

The  term  “ bone  phosphate,”  applied  to  purely  mineral  phos- 
phates, is  also  misleading,  since  it  is  liable  to  give  the  impression 
that  animal  bone  has  been  used  in  making  the  product. 

Wood  Ashes. 

The  number  of  samples  of  wood  ashes  examined  this  year  is 
somewhat  larger  than  usual,  and  they  show  the  usual  wide  varia- 
tion in  composition.  The  valuations  are  based  entirely  upon  the 
content  of  potash  and  phosphoric  acid. 

Sample  No.  5634  represents  a small  product  sent  to  the  “ Fruit 
Growers’  Union,”  of  Hammonton,  and  guaranteed  to  be  un- 
leached. It  was  submitted  for  analysis  previous  to  purchasing, 
and  hence  a contemplated  large  order  was  not  given. 

Samples  No.  6090  and  No.  6148  represent  products  guaranteed 
to  contain  as  a minimum  5 per  cent,  of  actual  potash  and  1 per 
cent,  of  phosphoric  acid,  and  the  price,  delivered,  to  be  $11  per 
ton,  on  the  basis  of  guarantee.  The  dealers  also  agreed  that  if 
it  did  not  reach  the  guaranteed  composition,  a proportionate  price 
■should  be  paid  for  such  amounts  as  it  did  contain.  On  the  basis 
of  guarantee  and  selling  price  given,  the  charge  for  potash  was 
9.24  cents  per  pound,  and  for  phosphoric  acid  8.8  cents  per  pound ; 
-or  76  per  cent,  greater  than  on  the  average  is  charged  for  the 
:same  elements  in  high-grade  sulphate  of  potash  and  in  super- 
phosphates. 

The  high  prices  charged,  though  the  consumer  only  paid  for 
the  actual  amounts  present,  illustrates  forcibly  the  importance  of 
.studying  the  relation  existing  between  the  guarantee  and  selling 
price.  With  but  one  or  two  exceptions  the  prices  charged  for  the 
plant-food  constituents  contained  in  the  samples  of  wood  ashes 
•examined  are  excessive. 


Complete  Fertilizers 

Furnishing  Nitrogen,  Phosphoric  Acid  and  Potash. 


12 


6 

<o 

a 

o 

< „ 

A 

H 


© o 


PQ  2 


fl  > 

« -5J 


<U  .O 
.Q  oS 

?3  be 


CO  > 2 


g X 

a ° 
« s 

£ ns 

◄ s 

◄ & 

m 


•asquint  uoii'Bjg 


Complete  Fertilizers 

Furnishing  Nitrogen,  Phosphoric  Acid  and  Potash. 


13 


•laqran^j  uoipjg 

1 

6011 

5996 

6006 

6012 

5721 

5720 

5753 

5754 

5937 

5938 
6019 

5968 

5970 

5969 
5986 

5971 

•iodaa 
,80:910118003  :jb  *sqi 

ooo‘3  jo  ooj-ia:  sanies 

$41.00 

41.00 

35.00 

38.00 

38.00 

30.00 

34.00 

34.00 

22.00 

40.00 

42.50 

42.00 

40.00 

37.50 
37.50 

32.00 

•AatpaB  j;  %vt  *sqi 
000‘8  jo  ootJdL  Soni»S 

•saotoj;  s^uoi^bxs 
J«  *sqx  O00‘o  jo  ani«A 

$28.86 

30.55 

27.00 

30.61 

29.11 

23.15 

32.00 

31.18 

13.67 

32.90 

34.22 

32.87 

27.54 

28.03 

31.04 
22.81 

•anuomo 

3.94 

2.51 

0.60 

5.00 

2.93 
2.73 

5.94 
6.18 
0.16 

3.38 
3.23 

4.39 
5.29 
3.85 
0.34 
5.47 

Potash. 

•paapiBJBti*) 

9.00 

5.00 
3.78 

9.00 
10.00 

2.00 
6.00 
6.00 
1.00 

10.00 

7.00 
7.00 

8.00 
12.00 

2.00 

2.25 

•ponoj; 

7.48 
4.98 
3.67 
9.45 
5.59 
2.74 
6.37 
6.42 
0.23 
11.04 
11.37 
8.30 
9.20 
12.87 
3.33 
2 91 

Phosphoric  Acid. 

,2  , •paapre.iBno 

i 1 

7.00 
10.00 

9.00 

9.00 

5.75 

6.25 

5.00 

6.00 
5.50 

10.00 

8.00 

*s 

4 ‘ponoj; 

7.72 

6.92 

8.96 
7.80 
9.35 
8.46 
8.85 
6.90 

1.45 
5.65 

5.97 
5.51 

6.46 
5.67 

10.51 

8.62 

•paapiB-iBno  i«jox 

8.00 

8.00 

10.00 

7.00 

10.00 

11.00 

4.00 

•ponoj  irjox 

9.73 

9.20 
10.94 

8.90 
11.45 
13.23 
12.82 
12  53 
1.84 
7.95 
7.69 

9.21 
8.62 
8.40 

11.53 

10.16 

aiqniosni 

2.01 

2.28 

1.98 

1.10 

2.10 

4.77 

3.97 

5.63 

0.39 

2.30 

1.72 
3.70 
2.16 

2.73 
1.02 
1.54 

•apjpo 

mninouinxy  ut  ajqniog 

3.12 
3.22 
3.84 
4.30 
3.03 
3.50 
4.05 
3.10 
1.45 

1.13 
2.59 
3.17 
3.70 
3.01 
1.49 

2.14 

•I8PAV  ni  aiqntog 

4.60 

3.70 

5.12 

3.50 

6.32 

4.96 

4.80 

3.80 

4.52 

3.38 

2.34 

2.76 

2.66 

9.02 

6.48 

Nitrogen. 

•paa^oromo  ib^ox 

®o^ooet<«®®4e|H^®e«90 
w ^ « r w « eo  w ei  m ei  h ei  h 

•ponoA  irjox 

3.14 
4.51 

3.15 
3.18 
3.69 
2.59 

3.96 
4.17 
3.10 
3.89 
4.07 
4.66 
2.74 

1.97 
3.92 
2.53 

uapBH  oiubSio  moj^ 

2.08 

2.60 

2.37 
2.02 
1.33 

1.38 
2.02 

2.14 
2.23 
1.95 
2.01 

1.14 
0.94 
0.93 
1.53 
1.04 

•s^ug  Binoimny  uioj^ 

1.06 

1.61 

0.78 

1.16 

1.07 

1.18 

0.87 

1.59 

1.83 

2.77 

1.80 

1.04 

2.23 

1.16 

•sapMiiti  raoij 

1 

0.30 

2.36 

1.21 

0.87 

0.85 

0.35 

0.23 

0.75 

0.16 

0.33 

Acme  Fertilizer,  No.  1 

“ “ No.  2 

“ “E”  Brand 

“ Potato 

Allen’s  Potato  and  Truck 

“ Complete  Phosphate 

Atkinson’s  Special  Potato,  No.  1 

“ “ “ No.  2 

Baker’s  Rotted  Bone  Manure 

Baker  & Bro.’s  Potato  Manure. ... 

“ “ Corn  Manure 

“ Cabbage  Manure 

“ Strawberry  Manure 

“ Vegetable  and  Vine 

“ “AA”  Am.  Superphos.. 
“ “ Standard  UnXlD  Fert.. 

uaqmn^  noipig 

6011 

3996 

5006 

5012 

3721 

3720 

3753 

3754 

3937 

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Furnishing  Nitrogen,  Phosphoric  Acid  and  Potash. 


24 


>■ 


Complete  Fertilizers 

Furnishing  Nitrogen,  Phosphoric  Acid  and  Potash. 


25 


•jaqum^  noijBis 

6065 

5880 

6030 

6038 

6068 

6069 

5790 

5764 

5874 
5876 

5875 
5977 

5991 
5990 
5979 

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$28.00 

35.00 

35.00 

32.00 

28.00 
28.00 

34.00 

42.00 

28.50 

26.00 
28.00 
22.00 

39.00 

30.00 

39.00 

26.50 

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6.29 

5.73 
7.18 
4.14 

6.59 
16.00 

1.73 
6.49 
1.78 
2.16 
1.56 
2.12 
8.24 
3.61 

6.60 
3.53 

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2.00 

6.00 

6.00 

4.00 

7.00 
6.00 
1.50 

7.00 
1.50 

2.00 

1.50 
2.00 

7.00 

4.00 

7.00 

3.50 

•pnnoj 

3.29 

5.76 

6.78 

4.03 
5.34 

6.03 
2.02 
7.02 
1.54 
2.22 
1.61 
2.09 
7.56 

3.78 
7.62 
3.90 

Phosphoric  Acid. 

Available. 

*X>a3jur.nmo 

8.00 

8.00 

8.00 

7.00 

10.00 

7.75 

9.00 

9.50 
8.25 

7.00 

7.50 

7.50 

7.00 

•panox 

7.79 

6.85 

8.39 

8.18 

7.98 

4.65 

9.90 
8.26 
9.08 
9.59 
9.06 
7.10 
7.24 
9.70 
7.36 

7.91 

•paajurjrno  ibjox 

9.00 

10.00 

10.00 

12.00 

12.00 

11.00 

8.00 
9.25 

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8 97 
9.77 
9.33 
10.15 
9.94 
10.35 
12.68 
9.06 
12.07 
12.68 
12.05 
9.47 
8.40 
12.00 
8.56 
9.47 

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1.18 

2.92 

0.94 

1.97 

1.96 

5.70 

2.78 

0.80 

2.99 

3.09 

2.99 

2.37 

1.16 

2.30 

1.20 

1.56 

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0.83 

2.49 

3.39 
1.42 
2.88 
4.65 
2.24 
1.58 
2.88 
1.27 

2.40 
4.10 
2.00 

3.40 
1.48 
5.47 

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6.96 

4.36 

5.00 
6.76 
5.10 

7.66 
6.68 
6.20 
8.32 

6.66 

3.00 
5.24 
6.30 
5.88 
2.44 

Nitrogen. 

•paojunjrno  irjox 

1.64 

1.64 

2.46 

1.64 

3.00 

3.00 

2.34 

3.69 

1.80 

1.23 

1.80 

1.31 

3.69 

1.80 

3.69 

1.64 

•punoj  injox 

2.35 

2.12 

3.18 

1.64 

1.17 

2.20 

2.63 

3.77 
2.07 
1.52 
2.11 

1.64 
3.79 
1.91 
3.69 

1.77 

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1.66 

1.49 

3.06 

1.64 

0.69 

2.20 

2.20 

2.13 

1.63 

1.31 

1.79 
1.42 

1.80 
1.69 
1.74 
0.83 

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0.43 

0.31 

0.44 

0.21 

0.32 

0.22 

0.18 

0.22 

0.19 

0.11 

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0.69 

0 53 

0.48 

1.30 

1 81 

1.76 

0.83 

Great  Eastern  General  Wheat  Special 

Hess’  Potato,  Tobacco  and  Truckers’  Man. 

“ Plain  Potato  Manure 

“ Fish  and  Potash 

Hopler’s  Potato  Fertilizer 

“ Grass  Fertilizer 

Lister’s  Standard  Pure  Bone  Superphos 

“ Vegetable  Compound 

“ Ammon.  Dissolved  Bone  Phos 

“ Standard  Success  Fertilizer 

“ Buckwheat  Fertilizer,. 

“ Standard  U.  S.  Phosphate 

“ Celebrated  Corn  Manure 

“ Corn  Fertilizer,  No.  2 

“ Cauliflower  and  Cabbage  Fert 

“ Lawn  Fertilizer 

•jaqnmsj  uoixbxs 

6065 

3880 

6030 

3038 

3068 

5069 

>790 

3764 

3874 
3876 

3875 
3977 

3991 
3990 
3979 

3992 

Complete  Fertilizers 

Furnishing  Nitrogen,  Phosphoric  Acid  and  Potash. 


26 


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Complete  Fertilizers 

Furnishing  Nitrogen,  Phosphoric  Acid  and  Potash. 


11 


•laqum^j  uorpsis 

5788 

5928 

6022 

5952 

5892 

5793 

5860 

5931 

6103 

6077 

5954 

5885 

5854 

6101 

5956 

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$42.00 

35.00 

38.00 

42.00 

27.00 

40.00 

43.00 

43.00 

40.00 

41.00 

40.00 

35.00 

38.00 

40.00 

35.00 

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25.35 

27.60 

31.31 

19.18 

29.54 

33.11 

33.42 

29.93 

30.72 

30.63 

27.00 

29.99 

29.51 

18.62 

•auuoxqo 

6.37 

3.50 

7.04 
0.81 
0.87 
0.72 
0.48 
5.92 
6.23 
6.36 
5.90 
2.96 

8.05 
4.12 
1.34 

Potash. 

•paajii'Ba'BnO 

7.00 

4.00 

7.00 

6.00 
1.00 

10.00 

3.00 

6.00 
6.00 
6.00 

5.00 

2.50 

8.00 
4.00 

1.50 

•punoA 

7.51 

3.63 

6.69 

7.85 

1.02 

10.75 

3.76 
6.69 
7 39 
7.04 
6.29 
3.46 
9.17 

4.76 
1.82 

Phosphoric  Acid. 

Available. 

•paaxuu.i'eno 

7.50 

7.00 

8.00 

7.00 

5.00 

8.00 
6.00 
6.00 
8.00 

7.00 
10.00 

6.00 
8.00 
8.00 

qjunoj 

7.40 

10.43 

9.56 

7.15 

8.33 

7.08 

9.08 
6.62 
6.26 

8.08 
6.97 

10.18 

8.68 

9.20 

7.25 

•paaxur.reti*)  xejox 

9.25 

8.00 

8.00 

7.00 

10.00 

8.00 

6.00 

10.00 

7.00 
12.00 

8.00 
10.00 
10.00 

•puuoj  I'BJOX  j 

8.48 

12.25 

11.68 

9.21 

9.89 

8.66 

11.68 

8.58 

8.01 

10.91 

8.95 

12.74 

10.07 

11.29 

10.16 

•aiqniosui 

1.08 

1.82 

2.12 

2.06 

1.56 
1.58 
2.60 
1.96 
1.75 
2.83 
1.98 

2.56 
1.39 
2.09 
2.91 

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2.12 

2.59 

3.22 

4.63 

4.89 

1.82 

1.88 

4.00 

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3.96 

2.49 

4.26 

3.34 
3.48 

1.35 

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5.28 

7.84 

6.34 
2.52 
3.44 
5.26 
7.20 
2.62 

4 54 
4.12 
4.48 
5.92 

5.34 
5.72 
5.90 

Nitrogen. 

•paajuBjeno  x«jox 

3.69 

1.80 

3.28 

3.69 

2.05 

1.64 

4.92 

4.92 

4.10 

3.69 

4.10 

2.46 

2.46 

3.28 

2.46 

•panoj  i«Jox 

3.75 
2.38 
2.89 
4.11 
2.18 
2.61 
4.96 
5.46 
4.42 
3 96 
4.55 
3.03 
2.89 
3.84 
1.92 

•laxx'BH  oxncSjo  raoj  j 

1.80 

2.13 

1.10 

1.63 

1.52 
1.70 
1.57 
1.59 
1.67 
1.99 
2.30 
1.97 
1.19 

1.53 
1.80 

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0.19 

0.25 

0.68 

0.11 

0.38 

1.85 

1.75 

1.01 

0.54 

0.86 

0.33 

1.59 

1.10 

0.12 

•saiBixiN  mojj[ 

1.76 

1.79 

1.80 
0.55 
0.53 
1.54 
2.12 
1.74 
1.43 
1.39 
0.73 
0.11 
1.21 

Lister’s  Potato  Manure 

“ Potato  Fertilizer,  No.  2 

Ludlam’s  Cecrops  Fertilizer 

Mapes’  Potato  Manure 

“ XXV.  Phosphate 

“ Fruit  and  Vine 

“ Complete  for  Heavy  Soils 

“ “ “ Light  “ 

“ Cauliflower  and  Cabbage 

“ Corn  Manure 

“ Grass  & Grain,  Spring  Top  Dr.. 

“ Complete  “A”  Brand 

“ Economical  Manure 

“ Complete  for  General  Use 

Millsom’s  Buffalo  Fertilizer 

•jaqrantf  uoiqexs 

5788 

5928 

6022 

5952 

5892 

5793 

5860 

5931 

6103 

6077 

5954 

5885 

5854 

6101 

5956 

Complete  Fertilizers 

Furnishing  Nitrogen,  Phosphoric  Acid  and  Potash. 


28 


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4.42 

6.34 

3.98 

2.62 

3.05 

4.88 

4.62 

2.28 

3.68 

4,15 

4.01 

5.38 

0.83 

2.24 

ramuonnny  ni  oiqniog 

5.58 

2.27 
1.70 
2.29 

1.28 
0.86 
6.40 

4.36 
3.68 

5.36 
6.27 
4.78 
6.00 
3.46 
1.72 

•joibav  ui  oiqnios 

0.06 

5.50 
6.14 
8.32 
5.66 
4.68 
1.40 
1.26 
6.08 

1.76 

2.50 

2.76 
0.62 
5.06 
5.38  j 

Nitrogen. 

•paajuBJBno  rejox 

5.74 
3.28 
3.38 
1 64 
1.64 
2.05 
1.03 

2.46 
1.64 
3.69 

3.46 
2.05 
1.03 
1.23 
4.10 

•puno^  ibxox 

5.75 

2.94 

3.45 
[ 1.97 

2.34 

3.38 

1.46 
2.73 
1.92 
3.78 
2.59 
3.36 
1.64 
3.17 

3.95 

oiubSjo  raoij 

5.75 
2.94 
3.45 
1.97 
2.34 
1.44 
1.32 
2.34 
1.69 

2.40 
1.90 

1.41 
1.44 
3.04 

2.76 

•sq^s  Binomuty  hiojj 

0.14 

0.13 

0.23 

0.67 

0.15 

0.19 

0.20 

0.13 

0.13 

•saiBiji^  raoi^ 

0.94 

0.26 

0.71 

0.54 

0.76 

1.06 

•jaqnin*i  noi^is 


§3  8 


g S g 


Furnishing  Nitrogen  and  Insoluble  Phosphoric  Acid 


40 


•jaqumtf  noil's 5 g 


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1 5 

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Furnishing  Nitrogen  and  Insoluble  Phosphoric  Acid, 


41 


•laqranrc  uoixisxs 

5864 

6059 

5631 

6147 

5829 

5781 

5749 

5804 

5786 

6152 

6029 

5981 

5791 

5897 

6164 

qodaa 

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^ * 

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•saouj;  s,uoi;«!jg 

*sqx  000‘3  jo  oiil«A 

$33.40 

33.48 

37.10 
37.86 
37.78 
30.01 
30.33 
38.17 

33.09 

37.11 
35.00 
19.57 

33.10 
38.96 
19.77 

Chemical 

Analysis. 

•ptoy  ouoqdsoqj 

26.44 

22.80 

26.10 

22.04 

20.32 

25.60 

29.30 

28.20 

25.52 

26.72 

17.88 

13.24 

24.80 

25.34 

14.68 

•uaSoiXfM 

2.73 

4.05 

3.71 

4.25 

3.13 

3.08 

1.65 
1.95 

4.08 
2.62 
3.16 
3.20 
3.89 

3.66 
1.78 

Mechanical  Analysis. 

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5 

13 
2 

17 

14 
22 
11 

1 

7 

22 

18 
5 

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13 

18 

7 

40 

21 

19 

17 

19 

29 

2 

23 

16 

31 

34 

9 

•at  qxes-X  uraqx  aanij 

24 
39 
43 

25 
35 
22 
22 
18 
29 

6 

24 

18 

34 

18 

22 

•ui  qX0S-X  n«qx  Jauij; 

58 

43 
50 
22 
42 
42 
47 
41 
31 
91 
46 

44 
35 
30 
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Furnishing  Nitrogen  and  Insoluble  Phosphoric  Acid. 


42 


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Ground  Bone 

Furnishing  Nitrogen  and  Insoluble  Phosphoric  Acid. 


43 


*i3qnm&  uoiiuig 

5898 

6141 

5908 

6149 

5912 

6130 

5920 

5919 

6027 

5962 

6155 

6091 

6092 

6093 

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000‘K  jo  98ijj  Suixi»S 

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•ppy  ouoqdsoqj  1 

26.48 

22.06 

20.80 

19.20 

28.08 

25.24 

20.96 

20.26 

23.42 

15.30 

22.44 

24.10 

25.90 

23.46 

-uaSojxi^  J 

2.94 
4.00 
5.58 
4.17 
2.08 
3.89 
4.07 
4 27 
2.11 
2.05 
1.30 
4.22 
4.03 
3.96 

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•nx  qx?I-I  nnqx  josiboo 

7 

7 

2 

37 

22 

10 

2 

1 

16 

3 

•ui  qi3l-l  nnqx  J8uij[ 

21 

12 

14 
50 
10 
24 
29 
23 

15 
17 

9 

45 

1 

61 

•ui  qigs-T  n«qx  janttf 

23 

89 

37 

35 

23 
18 
28 
28 
27 
26 
31 

24 
30 
29 

•ui  qxOQ-I  nnqx  maM 

49 

49 

49 

8 

65 

21 

21 

39 

56 

56 

60 

15 

69 

7 

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Canada  Ashes. 


Station  Number. 

MANUFACTURER. 

SENT  BY. 

5634 

Jas.  Thomas,  Williamsport,  Pa.  (Shipper  ) 

W.  H.  Ellis,  Hammonton. 

6090 

The  Forest  City  Wood  Ash  Co.,  London,  Ontario. 

W.  M.  Simonton,  Asbury. 

6148 

“ 

T.  T.  Hoffmann,  Bloomsbury. 

5821 

Munroe,  Lalor  & Co  , Oswego,  N.  Y. 

J.  Scullion,  Hammonton. 

5862 

“ 

C.  Kraus,  Egg  Harbor  City. 

5863 

“ 

it  u a 

6151 

“ 

P.  Q.  Hoagland,  Frankford. 

•6153 

Allison,  Stroup  & Co  , New  York  City. 

P.  J.  Staats,  Bound  Brook. 

6166 

Chas  Stevens,  Napanee,  Ontario. 

B.  M.  Field,  Bound  Brook. 

5634  6090  6148  5831  5863  5863  6151  6153  6166 


Phosphoric  Acid 1.34  1.28 

Potash 0.51  4.08 

Lime 34.26  24.88 

Valuation  per  Ton $1.88  $5.56 

Selling  Price  per  Ton 11.00  11.00 


1.16 

1.57 

1.43 

1.54 

1.45 

1.75 

1.67 

3.26 

3.82 

6.93 

4.97 

8.81 

4.10 

4.19 

23.71 

28.76 

31.26 

35.24 

32.90 

33.06 

38.10 

$4.58 

$5.58 

$8.71 

$6.76 

$10.70 

$6.06 

$6.07 

11.00 

13.00 

12.50 

12.00 

13.00 

12.00 

15.00 

EDWARD  B.  VOORHEES, 

Director. 

New  Brunswick,  N.  J.,  November  19th,  1894. 


/LA  * Sr?*'- 


GLUTEN  FEEDS. 

THEIR  SOURCE,  COMPOSITION  AND  METHODS  OF  USE,. 


NEW  JERSEY 

AGRICULTURAL 

Experiment  Station 

105 


NEW  JERSEY 

Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 

BULLETIN  105. 


NOVEMBER  20,  1894. 


Gluten  Feeds— Their  Source,  Composition  and 
Methods  of  Use. 

In  recent  years  there  has  been  a considerable  addition  to  the 
number  of  concentrated,  or  commercial  feeds,  upon  the  market ; 
many  of  these  products  are  extremely  valuable,  not  only  because 
they  are  concentrated  in  bulk,  but  also  because  their  purchase 
and  use  serve  to  make  more  palatable  and  economical  the  feed- 
ing of  the  coarser  and  more  bulky  products  of  the  farm ; in 
many  cases,  too,  such  a practice  diminishes  the  exportation  of 
plant-food  constituents  consequent  upon  a direct  sale  of  grain 
crops,  or  of  beef,  pork  or  milk. 

The  better  utilization  of  the  coarse  products,  particularly 
corn  stalks  and  straw,  by  means  of  concentrated  feeds,  and  the 
economic  bearings  of  such  methods  of  feeding,  were  discussed 
at  length  in  Bulletin  No.  96,  distributed  in  November,  1893. 

Among  the  list  of  useful  feeds,  those  which  consist  of  the 
parts  of  the  cereal  grains,  as  wheat  bran,  middlings  and  brewers’ 
grains,  with  the  manufacture  of  which  the  farmers  are  familiar, 
and  into  which  no  foreign  or  deleterious  substances  enter,  have- 
reached  a wide  use  ; their  value  is  well  established  ; while  those- 
which  result  from  the  manufacture  of  vegetable  products  with 
which  they  are  not  familiar,  and  which  in  some  cases  are  not 
strictly  food  products  in  their  original  form,  are  slowly  accepted,, 
and  even  now  sparingly  used  in  many  sections  of  the  State,. 


4 


Such  has  been  the  case,  for  example,  with  cotton-seed  meal,  not- 
withstanding its  very  great  value,  both  from  food  and  fertility 
standpoints. 

In  other  words,  a familiarity  with  the  value  of  the  original 
product  as  a feed,  coupled  with  a knowledge  of  the  processes  by 
which  the  by-products  have  been  secured,  are  factors  which 
largely  influence  introduction  and  use. 

It  is  well  understood  by  many,  that  the  removal  of  a part  of 
the  whole  grain  does  not  destroy,  though  it  may  modify,  the 
value  of  the  residue,  but  that  greater  skill  may  be  required  in 
order  to  obtain  satisfactory  results  in  its  use,  because  it  may  be 
less  perfect,  or  complete,  in  itself  as  a general  food  than  the 
original  product. 

Foods  one-sided  in  the  sense  that  one  or  more  of  the  digestible 
constituents  may  be  in  too  great  excess,  or  too  deficient,  are  not 
necessarily  very  good  or  very  poor,  though  such  may  be  the 
case  ; they  are,  however,  less  likely  to  prove  valuable  as  exclusive 
diets  than  the  entire  grains.  For  instance,  oats,  wheat  bran  and 
linseed  meal  are  all  excellent  horse  feeds,  yet  of  the  three,  oats 
is  the  only  one  that  can  be  fed  exclusively  with  safety ; the  total 
value  of  the  food  compounds  in  one  ton  of  linseed  meal  is,  how- 
• ever,  quite  as  great,  if  not  greater  than  in  the  oats ; the  main 
fact  is  that  it  is  not  as  perfect  in  its  proportions  of  food  com- 
pounds, or  in  its  physical  character,  for  the  purpose  of  horse- 
feeding. 

Illustrations  of  this  kind  could  be  multiplied  to  show  that  it 
is  physical  character,  or  bulk  of  the  product,  and  proportion,  as 
well  as  kind  and  amount  of  constituents,  that  gives  value  in  a 
complete  diet. 


Gluten  Feeds. 

These  feeds  have  been  introduced  in  our  Eastern  markets 
recently  in  large  quantities,  under  the  general  name  of  “Gluten 
Meal”  or  “Gluten  Feed.”  The  fact  that  they  are  relatively 
new,  and  because  the  various  products  differ  in  their  appearance, 
their  feeding  value  and  price  per  ton,  there  has  arisen  frequent 
inquiries  as  to  their  composition  and  value,  particularly  from 


those  progressive  dairymen  who  closely  study  economical 
methods  of  purchasing  and  using  feeds. 

The  analyses  of  certain  of  these  feeds  have  been  published  by 
a number  of  Experiment  Stations,  a few  have  conducted  feeding 
experiments  to  test  their  value,  and  the  results  secured  indicate 
for  them  a high  position  among  the  concentrated  feeds.  A diffi- 
culty, however,  still  exists  in  that  the  names  attached  are  too 
indefinite,  and  do  not  indicate  the  true  composition  of  the  vari- 
ous products. 

The  object  of  this  bulletin  is,  therefore,  to  publish  an  analysis- 
of  all  of  these  products,  to  indicate  their  sources  and  method 
of  manufacture,  and  as  far  as  possible,  from  a study  of  tho 
analyses,  to  classify  them  according  to  their  composition  and 
relative  feeding  value.  In  prosecuting  this  work  representative 
samples  were  secured  both  from  dealers  in  the  State  and  directly 
from  the  manufacturers.  In  some  instances  it  was  possible  to 
secure  a number  of  samples  of  the  same  kind,  thus  permitting  a 
study  of  possible  variations  in  composition. 


How  the  Products  are  Derived. 

These  feeds  occur  as  residues  in  the  manufacture  either  of 
starch,  or  of  glucose  (grape  sugar),  from  maize  or  Indian  corn. 
It  is  the  aim  of  the  manufacturer  to  secure  from  the  corn  a maxi- 
mum product  of  starch  or  sugar ; the  whole  resultant  residue, 
therefore,  is  relatively  low  in  starch,  and  varies  in  composition 
according  to  the  excellence  of  the  method  of  manufacture,  and 
the  variation  in  the  composition  of  the  original  raw  material — 
corn. 

The  average  of  a large  number  of  analyses  shows  that  one 
hundred  pounds  of  the  dry  matter  of  corn  contain  : 


Crude  Fat 5.59  pounds. 

Crude  Fiber  (cellulose) 2.46  “ 

Crude  Protein 11.52  “ 

Crude  Ash 1.68  “ 

Carbohydrates  (chiefly  starch) 78.75  “ 


A glance  at  these  figures  shows  that  corn  is  made  up  chiefly 
of  the  class  carbohydrates,  or  starch ; it  is  evident  that  the  re- 


6 


inoval  of  any  part  of  it  must  increase  the  proportion  of  the  other 
constituents  in  the  residue. 

The  constituent  contained  in  corn  next  in  amount  to  carbo- 
hydrates is  protein — a collective  term  which  includes  all  of  the 
albuminoids — and  to  which  the  name  “ gluten”  is  commonly 
applied ; hence,  the  partial  or  complete  removal  of  the  starch 


makes  this  constituent  the  most  prominent,  and  the  general 
name  “ gluten”  has  been  applied  to  the  feeds  so  derived,  and 
in  point  of  amount  the  protein  is  the  most  important  constituent 
in  many  of  the  products. 

The  starch  in  the  class  carbohydrates  is,  however,  not  entirely 
separated  even  under  the  best  methods  of  manufacture  now 
employed ; hence,  the  total  residue  still  contains  a large  portion 
of  carbohydrates,  often  amounting  to  more  than  one-half  of  the 
total  dry  matter. 

Parts  of  Corn. 

The  accompanying  enlarged  cut  of  a corn,  or  maize,  kernel 
will  assist  in  locating  the  four  distinct  parts  which  are  of  interest 
in  this  study. 


a is  the  husk,  or  skin,  which  covers  the  whole  kernel ; it 
(consists  of  two  distinct  layers,  the  outer  and  inner,  which  when 
removed  constitute  the  bran,  and  contain  practically  all  of  the 
crude  fiber  of  the  whole  grain. 

b is  a layer  of  gluten  cells,  which  lies  immediately  under- 
neath the  husk  ; it  is  yellow  in  color,  and  cannot  be  readily  sepa- 
rated from  the  remainder  of  the  kernel.  This  part  is  the  richest 
of  any  in  gluten. 

c is  the  germ,  which  is  readily  distinguished  by  its  position 
.and  form ; it  also  contains  gluten,  though  it  is  particularly  rich 
in  oil  and  mineral  constituents. 

The  large  portion,  d,  is  composed  chiefly  of  starch  ; the  dark 
color  indicates  the  yellowy  flinty  part,  in  which  the  starch-hold- 
ing cells  are  more  closely  compacted. 

A perfect  separation  of  the  corn  kernel  into  its  ‘parts  as  de- 
scribed is  difficult,  if  not  impossible.  It  was  found  possible, 
however,  to  partially  separate  100  grammes  of  kernels  of  new 
corn,  so  as  to  secure  for  analysis  the  skin  and  the  germ  in  a state 
of  comparative  purity.  To  do  so  it  was  necessary  to  leave  por- 
tions of  each  attached  to  the  starchy  and  hard  part  of  the  corn. 
The  parts  analyzed  as  follows  : 


Station  Number. 

Amount  Secured  from 
100  parts  of  Original 
Corn. 

Per  cent,  of  Water. 

COMPOSITION  OF 

THE  WATER-FREE  MATERIAL. 

J Crude  Fat. 

Crude  Fiber. 

Crude  Protein. 

Crude  Ash. 

. 1 

Carbohydrates. 

Nitrogen. 

Phosphoric  Acid.  1 

Potash. 

905 

Original  Corn 

100.00 

24.71 

4.31 

2.02 

12.65 

1.73 

79.26 

2.02 

0.83 

0.47 

906 

Skin 

5.56 

15.29 

1.59 

16.45 

6.60 

1.27 

75.36 

1.06 

0.23 

0.38 

907 

Germ 

10.17 

29.62 

29.62 

2.83 

21.71 

11.13 

45.79 

3.43 

6.16 

2.91 

939 

Starchy  and  hard  part.... 

84.27 

24.66 

1.54 

0.65 

12.23 

0.68 

1 

85.58 

1.96 

0.35 

0.17 

The  germ,  although  only  about  10  per  cent,  of  the  wdiole 
kernel,  contains  65  per  cent,  of  the  fat,  61J  per  cent,  of  the 
mineral  matter,  71  per  cent,  of  the  phosphoric  acid,  60  per  cent, 
of  the  potash,  and  16 J per  cent,  of  the  nitrogen,  or  protein.  The 


8 


remaining  portions  are  characterized,  the  skin  by  its  content  of 
fiber,  51  per  cent,  of  the  whole,  and  the  starchy  part  by  its  carbo- 
hydrates, of  which  it  contains  nearly  90  per  cent,  of  that  in  the- 
whole  grain. 

The  processes  by  which  the  starch  is  obtained,  while  perhaps 
differing  somewhat,  consist  essentially  in  the  separation  first  of 
the  germ  and  hull  from  the  starch  and  albuminoids  contained  in 
the  remainder  either  directly  by  machinery,  or  by  soaking  in  warm 
water,  crushing  into  a coarse  powder,  and  separating  by  gravity, 
the  hulls  floating  on  the  surface,  and  the  germs  sinking  to  the- 
bottom  ; and  second,  the  final  separation  of  the  gluten  from  the- 
starch,  which  is  effected  by  allowing  the  fluid  containing  them  to 
run  slowly  through  long  troughs,  the  heavier  starch  settling  to 
the  bottom,  and  the  lighter  yellow  substance,  containing  the  pro- 
tein and  fat,  floating  off. 

The  residue  in  this  manufacture  may,  therefore,  consist  either 
of  one  product,  a mixture  of  the  gluten,  germ  and  hulls,  or  of 
three,  when  the  gluten,  germ  and  hulls  are  each  separated.  In 
any  case,  however,  the  feeds  are  parts  of  the  original  corn, 
though  when  dried  for  market  they  differ  in  appearance,  in  pro- 
portion of  food  constituents,  and  in  physical  character. 

The  entire  residue  is  in  color  brighter  yellow  than  corn  meal, 
and  of  a much  more  bulky  character,  owing  to  the  presence  of 
a larger  proportion  of  bran ; the  trade  name  of  this  product  is. 
“ Gluten  Feed.”  The  gluten  is  distingushed  by  a higher  content 
of  both  protein  and  fat,  and  a bright-yellow  color,  and  is  called 
“ Gluten  Meal.”  The  germ  is  more  bulky  than  the  meals, 
shows  a high  content  of  crude  fat,  and  is  called  “ Germ  Meal” 
or  “ Germ  Food.”  The  hulls  are  very  bulky,  show  a high  con- 
tent of  crude  fiber,  and  are  usually  sold  as  “ Corn  Bran.” 


Gluten  Feed. 

Table  I.  shows  the  composition  of  the-  feeds  of  the  various- 
manufacturers,  and  with  one  exception  they  consist  of  the  entirn 
residue. 

The  samples  are  arranged  in  the  order-  of  their  richness  in  fat 
and  protein — the  two  compounds  of  highest  value  in  foods  of 


this  class.  No.  862  is  much  less  valuable  in  this  respect  than 
the  others,  though  much  richer  in  carbohydrates,  which  appears 
to  be  due  in  large  part  to  a less  perfect  extraction  of  the  starch. 


TABLE  I. 


Gluten  Feeds. 


POUNDS  PER 

HUNDRED 

OF 

Name  and  Address. 

j Water. 

Crude  Fat. 

1 Crude 
| Fiber. 

Crude 

Protein. 

j Crude  Ash 

| Carbo- 
| hydrates. 

871 

Chicago  Gluten  Feed 

American  Glucose  Co., 

Chicago,  111. 

7.61 

14.18 

6.31 

24.03 

0.87 

47.00 

883 

Peoria  Gluten  Feed 

Peoria  Grape  Sugar  Co., 

Peoria,  111. 

6.91 

14.84 

7.11 

22.64 

0.97 

47.50 

903 

Buffalo  Gluten  Feed 

American  Glucose  Co., 

Buffalo,  N.  Y. 

10.20 

13.67 

7.17 

22.65 

0.84 

45.47 

859 

Buffalo  Gluten  Feed 

American  Glucose  Co., 

Buffalo,  N.  Y. 

8.74 

11.91 

7.75 

23.39 

1.01 

47.20 

899 

Buffalo  Gluten  Feed 

American  Glucose  Co  , 

Buffalo,  N.  Y. 

9.82 

13.44 

6.98 

21.38 

0.82 

47.56 

813 

Buffalo  Gluten  Feed 

American  Glucose  Co., 

Buffalo,  N.  Y. 

8.62 

12.83 

7.20 

19.54 

0.93 

50.88 

862 

Dry  Gluten  Feed  

National  Starch  Mfg.  Co., 

New  York  City. 

6.33 

8.31 

5.34 

17.61 

0.59 

61.82 

875 

Chicago  Maize  Feed  * 

Chicago  Sugar  Refining  Co., 
Chicago,  111. 

8.50 

8.28 

7.43 

25.91 

1.20 

48.68 

Average  

8 32 

12.74 

6 84 

21.61 

0.86  1 

49.63 

* Not  included  in  average. 


No.  875,  “ Chicago  Maize  Feed,”  is  claimed  to  be  a mixture  of 
the  hull  and  yellow  portion,  without  the  germ,  and  is  less  rich 
in  fat ; it  is  included  because  in  chemical  composition  it  corre- 
sponds more  nearly  with  the  whole  . residue  than  with  any  of  the 
separate  parts. 

In  Table  II.  the  samples  have  been  reduced  to  the  “water-free 
basis,”  and  the  average  composition  of  the  dry  matter  compared 
with  that  of  the  corn  kernel  of  the  yellow  dent  variety,  and 
also  with  the  calculated  composition  of  the  total  residue  from  it, 


10 


when  75  per  cent,  of  the  class  carbohydrates  has  been  removed 
in  the  form  of  starch. 


TABLE  II. 

Composition  of  Dry  Matter. 


Name. 

Crude  Fat 

POUNDS 

V !_• 

•c  D 

S-l  ’W 

PER  HUND 

a 
a -a 
-c  d 

3 O 
- Sh 

CPh 

RED  OF 

■d 

< 

<D 

rO 

3 

O 

Carbo- 

hydrates. 

871 

Chicago  Gluten  Feed 

15.35 

6.83 

26.01 

0.94 

50.87 

883 

Peoria  Gluten  Feed 

15.95 

7.64 

24.33 

1.04 

51.04 

903 

Buffalo  Gluten  Feed 

15.22 

7.98 

25.22 

0.94 

50.64 

859 

Buffalo  Gluten  Feed 

13.05 

8.49 

25.63 

1.11 

51.72 

899 

Buffalo  Gluten  Feed 

14.90 

7.74 

23.71 

0.91 

52.74 

843 

Buffalo  Gluten  Feed 

14.04 

7.88 

21.38 

1.02 

55.68 

862 

Dry  Gluten  Feed. 

8.87 

5.70 

18.80 

0.63 

66.00 

Gluten  Feed,  Average  Composition... 

13.91 

7.47 

33.58 

0.94 

54.10 

Corn,  less  75  per  cent.  Starch 

13.66 

6.01 

38.15 

4.10 

48.08 

Corn,  Average  Composition 

5.59 

1 3.46 

1 11.53 

1 1.68 

i 78.75 

A study  of  this  table  shows  that,  as  compared  with  corn,  the 
dry  matter  of  the  gluten  feed  contains  higher  percentages  of  fat? 
protein  and  fiber,  and  lower  percentages  of  carbohydrates  and 
ash,  that  is,  with  the  exception  of  ash,  all  of  the  classes  of  food 
compounds  have  been  increased  by  the  removal  of  starch. 

Assuming  that  75  per  cent,  of  the  class  carbohydrates  con- 
tained in  the  average  sample  of  corn  may  be  recovered  as  starch 
and  that  all  of  the  residue  can  be  recovered  as  feed,  the  average 
composition  of  such  residue  should  be  much  richer  in  protein 
and  ash,  and  poorer  in  fat,  fiber  and  carbohydrates,  than  any  of 
the  samples  examined  which  are  claimed  to  represent  the  total 
residue. 

This  disagreement  in  composition  is  mainly  due  to  the  fact 
that  in  the  methods  of  manufacture  now  carried  out,  in  which 
water  is  freely  used,  a large  part  of  the  mineral  constituents  and 
a portion  of  the  albuminoids  are  extracted,  though,  of  course, 
other  losses,  perhaps  largely  mechanical,  are  possible. 

From  the  feeders’  standpoint,  the  extraction  of  the  mineral  or 


11 


ash  constituents  is  of  some  importance  as  affecting  both  food  and 
fertility  values ; for  instance,  in  feeding  young  stock  and  dairy 
cows  the  ash  elements  in  a food  are  not  only  generally  useful, 
but  very  necessary  for  the  building  up  of  the  bone  and  frame- 
work of  the  body,  and  in  furnishing  mineral  salts  for  the  animal 
product — milk  ; while  in  the  exchange  of  farm  products  for  con- 
centrated feeds,  the  fertilizer  constituents  in  the  feeds  are  worthy 
of  consideration.  These  residues  are,  however,  much  richer  than 
the  original  corn  in  the  more  valuable  constituents,  fat  and  pro- 
tein, and  the  more  expensive  fertilizer  element,  nitrogen,  and 
may,  therefore,  be  quite  as  valuable  from  the  standpoint  of  both 
food  and  fertility,  though  in  a different  way. 

The  next  question  of  importance  is  : Are  the  same  food  con- 
stituents in  the  corn  residue — gluten  feed — as  useful  as  when 
contained  in  the  whole  corn  ? 

The  usefulness  of  a feed  depends  chiefly  upon  the  three  char- 
acteristics, palatability,  digestibility,  and  the  proportion  of  food 
compounds  contained  in  it,  no  one  of  which  is  sufficient  in  itself 
to  accomplish  the  purpose. 

In  the  corn  these  characteristics  are  fairly  well  combined, 
making  it  one  of  the  most  useful  feeds  we  have.  There  is  a 
sweetness  and  a flavor  which  are  attractive  to  animals,  and  this 
palatability  is  accompanied  by  a high  rate  of  digestibility.  The 
proportion  of  the  three  classes  of  constituents  is  such,  however, 
as  to  make  it  less  valuable  as  a sole  grain  ration,  even  for  fatten- 
ing purposes,  than  when  mixed  with  products  containing  a 
higher  content  of  protein. 

The  gluten  feed,  or  total  residue  from  the  corn,  is  slightly  less 
palatable  than  the  original  product,  since  in  many  cases  animals 
do  not  eat  it  greedily  when  first  offered  to  them,  though  it  is  in 
the  main  readily  eaten. 

The  co-efficients  of  digestibility  of  the  gluten  feed  were  shown 
by  experiments  conducted  with  ruminants  at  the  Massachusetts 
Experiment  Station  to  be  slightly  less  for  the  carbohydrates  and 
fat  and  greater  for  the  protein  than  those  commonly  used  for 
corn  meal.  They  are  for  crude  fat  81,  crude  fiber  43,  crude  pro- 
tein 85,  and  81  for  carbohydrates.  The  direct  experiments  on 
digestibility  are  too  few  to  warrant  any  positive  statements  in 


12 


reference  to  this  point ; nevertheless,  since  the  experience  of 
practical  feeders  indicates  that  the  actual  food  compounds  in  the 
gluten  feed  have  not  suffered  any  injurious  change  due  to  the 
methods  of  manufacture,  it  is  believed  that  these  co-efficients 
may  be  safely  used  until  further  data  are  secured. 


The  Use  of  Gluten  Feed. 

The  chemical  analysis  shows  that  gluten  feed  should  be  classed 
as  a nitrogenous,  or  flesh-forming,  rather  than  a carbonaceous,  or 
fat-forming,  food,  though  much  richer  in  fat  than  the  corn  meal ; 
hence,  its  usefulness  lies  in  an  opposite  direction.  Its  best  use  is 
accomplished  when  fed  in  connection  with  products  deficient  in 
protein,  of  which  meadow  hay,  corn  stalks,  straw  and  corn  meal, 
the  general  feeds  of  the  farmer,  are  good  examples. 

Our  reports  have  pointed  out  from  time  to  time  the  results  of 
feeding  experiments,  which  show  that  the  proportion  of  the 
digestible  constituents  in  a feed  should  be  varied  according  to 
the  object  of  the  feeding. 

In  a ration  for  simple  maintenance  the  proportion  of  the  fats 
•and  carbohydrates  together,  or  fat-formers,  may  be  greatly  in 
excess  of  the  digestible  protein,  or  flesh-formers,  while  for  the 
production  of  milk,  or  of  flesh,  products  rich  in  albumen  and 
casein,  protein,  the  direct  and  only  source  of  these  compounds, 
should  be  increased.  The  proportion  of  the  one  class  to  the 
other  is  called  the  “nutritive  ratio.” 

If  the  sum  of  the  digestible  carbohydrates  and  two  and  one- 
fourth  times  the  digestible  fat  is  divided  by  the  digestible  protein 
in  the  ration,  the  quotient  gives  the  nutritive  ratio.  If  the 
•quantities  of  digestible  fat  and  carbohydrates  are  large  relative 
to  the  protein,  this  number  will  be  large  and  the  ration  is  called 
n “ wide  ration if  the  quantities  of  digestible  fat  and  carbo- 
hydrates are  relatively  small,  the  quotient  is  a small  number  and 
the  ration  is  a “ narrow  ” one.  A ration  where  the  nutritive  ratio 
is  much  more  than  1 to  6 may  be  called  a “wide  ration  if  much 
less,  it  may  be  called  a “narrow  ration.” 

The  calculated  rations  given  in  this  bulletin  are  intended  for 
dairy  cows,  and  therefore  show  a narrow  nutritive  ratio  approxi- 


13 


mating  1 to  5.4.  The  average  composition  and  digestibility  of 
the  various  feeds  used,  other  than  gluten,  were  obtained  from 
the  tables  given  on  pages  174-177  of  the  Annual  Report  of 
the  Station  for  1893. 

The  effect  of  corn  meal  and  gluten  feed  in  influencing  the 
nutritive  ratio,  or  the  proportion  of  protein  to  fat  and  carbo- 
hydrates in  a ration,  may  be  illustrated  as  follows,  the  valuable 
■coarse  product,  crushed  corn  stalks,  serving  to  furnish  the 
requisite  bulk  : 

CONTAINS  POUNDS  OF  DIGESTIBLE 

Fat.  Protein.  Carbohydrates. 

.47  1.45  18.63 

Nutritive  ratio  1 to  13.6. 

CONTAINS  POUNDS  OF  DIGESTIBLE 

Fat.  Protein.  Carbohydrates. 

1.41  2.72  11.60 

Nutritive  ratio  1 to  5.4. 

The  nutritive  ratio  of  No.  1 is  shown  to  be  very  wide  ; in  other 
words,  there  is  a deficiency  of  protein.  The  substitution  of  12 
lbs.  of  gluten  meal  for  12  lbs.  of  corn  meal  changes  or  narrows 
it  from  1 : 13.6  to  1 : 5.4,  corresponding  very  closely  with  our 
standard  for  milk  cows. 

The  addition  of  the  corn  meal  to  the  corn  stalks  simply  results 
in  increasing  the  proportion  of  that  class  of  compounds  already 
in  excess  in  the  coarse  fodder,  while  the  addition  of  an  equal 
weight  of  the  gluten  feed  instead  adds  the  constituents  that  are 
deficient  in  the  coarse  products. 

The  use  of  No.  1,  which  practice  has  shown  can  be  safely  fed, 
would  obviously  result  in  a waste  of  carbohydrates,  while  No.  2, 
which  is  satisfactory  from  the  standpoint  of  nutritive  ratio,  could 
hardly  be  recommended  either  on  the  ground  of  entire  safety  as 
•a  steady  diet  for  dairy  animals,  or  as  the  most  useful  ration  that 
■could  be  compounded  with  the  gluten  feed  as  an  important  part. 
The  following  is  given  as  a substitute,  though  it  perhaps  does  not 
mark  the  limit  in  the  amount  of  gluten  feed  that  may  be  safely 
used  : 


1. 

Corn  Meal  Ration. 

Corn  Stalks 15  lbs. 

Corn  Meal 12  u 

2. 

Gluten  Feed  Ration. 

Corn  Stalks 15  lbs 

Gluten  Feed 12  ‘ 


14 


3. 

CONTAINS 

POUNDS  OF  DIGESTIBLE- 

Gluten  Feed  Ration. 
Corn  Stalks 

...  10  lbs.  ] 

Fat. 

Protein.  Carbohydrates.. 

Clover  Hay 

Buffalo  Gluten  Feed 

Wheat  Bran 

...  5 “ 1 

...  6 “ 

...  5 “ J 

.97 

2.50  12.21 

Nutritive  ratio  1 to  5 8. 

The  main  purpose  in  the  foregoing  is  to  show  the  influence  of 
the  feed  in  preparing  rations  which  shall  show  the  proper  pro- 
portion of  food  compounds,  rather  than  to  suggest  the  best  pos- 
sible use  of  the  feed,  though  it  is  believed  that  the  last  given  will 
be  satisfactory.  Where  it  seems  desirable  to  use  a larger  number 
of  feeds  the  following  is  suggested  : 


4. 

Gluten  Feed  Ration. 


Corn  Stalks  10  lbs, 

Clover  Hay 5 “ 

Wheat  Bran 3 “ 

Buffalo  Gluten  Feed 3  4 * * * * * *  11 

Diied  Brewers’  Grains 3 “ 

Cott  n-Seed  Meal 1 “ 


CONTAINS  POUNDS  OF  DIGESTIBLE 

Fat.  Protein.  Carbohydrates.. 

1 

I 

\ .88  2.53  11.27 

l 

Nutritive  ratio  1 to  5.3. 


Gluten  Meal. 

The  samples  of  gluten  meal  examined  represent  the  product 
of  five  different  firms,  and  are  claimed  to  consist  largely  of  the 
gluten  of  the  corn,  separated  from  the  germ  and  hull,  as  indi- 
cated on  page  8. 


15 


TABLE  Ilf. 


Gluten  Meals. 


POUNDS  PER 

HUNDRED 

OF 

Name  and  Address. 

j Water. 

j Crude  Fat. 

| Crude 
Fiber. 

Crude 

Protein. 

| Ciude  Ash. 

a> 

6 

|| 
C A 

869 

Cream  Gluten  Meal 

Chas.  Pope  Glucose  Co.. 

Chicago,  111. 

7.37 

15.64 

1.45 

41.76 

1.58 

32.20 

885 

King  Gluten  Meal... 

National  starch  Mfg.  Co.. 

New  York  City. 

9.36 

19.77 

1.47 

35.09 

1.90 

32.41 

872 

Iowa  Golden  Gluten  Meal 

Firmenich  Mfg.  Co., 

Marshalltown,  Iowa. 

7.61 

12.65 

3.60 

30.47 

1 

1.00 

44.67 

881 

Gluten  Meal  (Flour).. 

Continental  Food  Product  Co  , 
Waukegan,  111. 

8.51 

11.78 

0.67 

30.27 

1.09 

47.65 

892 

Hammond  Gluten  Meal 

Stein,  Hirsh  & Co., 

Chicago,  111. 

7.85 

10.48 

1.12 

26.56 

1.00 

52.99 

Average 

8.15 

14.06 

1.66 

32.83 

1.31 

41.99 

876 

Chicago  Gluten  Meal 

Chicago  Sugar  Refining  Co., 
Chicago,  111. 

8.70 

6.52 

1.42 

42.96 

0.94 

39.46 

856 

Chicago  Gluten  Meal 

Chicago  Sugar  Refining  Co., 
Chicago,  III. 

8.95 

4.98 

1.45 

33.70 

0.83 

50.(9 

878 

Chicago  Gluten  Meal ; 

Chicago  Sugar  Refining  Co., 
Chicago,  111 

10.82 

5.18 

1.64 

30.71 

0.81 

50.84 

Average 

9.49 

1 5.56 

1.50  i 

! 35.79 

0.86 

46.80 

An  examination  of  the  chemical  composition  of  these  samples 
shows  considerable  variation  in  the  proportion  of  the  nutritive 
compounds,  fat,  protein  and  carbohydrates,  though  they  all  agree 
with  each  other  in  showing  much  less  crude  fiber  than  the  gluten 
feeds,  as  a result  of  the  more  or  less  complete  separation  of  the 
hull  and  germ. 

The  product  of  the  Chicago  Sugar  Refining  Co.  is  less  rich  in 
fat  than  any  of  the  others,  and  therefore  belongs  to  a separate- 
class,  and  is  distinguished  from  the  others  by  adding  the  name 
“ Chicago.”  It  contains  less  than  half  as  much  fat,  and  about 
60  per  cent,  more  protein  than  the  feeds. 

The  gluten  meals  are  calculated  to  serve  the  same  purpose  as 


16 


tlie  feeds  in  the  preparation  of  rations,  though  in  a still  greater 
degree — i.  e.,  it  will  require  less  amounts  to  accomplish  the 
purpose. 

Gluten  meal  has  an  attractive  appearance  and  a pleasant 
flavor,  though,  as  with  the  gluten  feed,  animals  do  not  eagerly 
eat  it  at  first.  In  case  of  one  meal  it  was  reported  that  animals 
refused  to  eat  it  altogether ; a sample  was  carefully  examined 
and  found  to  be  in  good  condition,  perfectly  sweet,  and,  as  far  as 
could  be  discovered,  free  from  any  objectionable  qualities. 

The  co-efficients  of  digestibility  of  the  meal  were  shown  by 
experiments  conducted  at  the  Maine  Experiment  Station  to  be 
88  for  fat,  87  for  protein  and  91  for  carbohydrates,  somewhat 
higher  for  all  of  the  food  compounds  than  those  reported  for  the 
gluten  feed,  and  higher  for  protein  than  American  digestibility 
experiments  have  shown  for  the  whole  corn. 


Use  of  Gluten  Meal. 

Because  of  its  high  content  of  proteiti  and  fat,  gluten  meal  re- 
quires to  be  more  carefully  used  than  the  gluten  feed.  Its  use 
should  be  similar  to  that  of  old-process  oil  meal,  with  which  the 
“ Chicago  Gluten  Meal  ” compares,  or  cotton-seed  meal,  to  which 
the  others  are  similar.  In  our  experience  four  pounds  per  day 
may  be  used  with  entire  safety. 

It  is  shown  by  the  following  tabulated  ration  that  four  pounds 
of  gluten  meal  furnishes  practically  the  same  amounts  of  fat  and 
protein  as  are  furnished  by  six  pounds  of  the  gluten  feed,  since 
^witli  this  amount  the  total  digestible  nutrients  in  the  ration  are 
nearly  identical  with  those  shown  in  ration  No.  3,  when  the 
-other  products  are  the  same  in.  amount  and  kind  : 


Corn  Stalks  . 

5. 

Gluten  Meal  Ration. 

...  10  lbs  1 

CONTAINS 

Fat. 

POUNDS 

Protein. 

OF  DIGESTIBLE 

Carbohydrates. 

Hav 

•Gluten  Meal. 
Wheat  Bran. 

...  5 “ [ 

...  4 “ | 

...  5 “ j 

1.15 

2.55 

11.16 

Nutritive  ratio  1 to  5.4. 


17 


The  “ Chicago  Gluten  Meal,”  containing  less  fat  and  more- 
protein,  would  show  practically  the  same  nutritive  ratio  if  used 
as  follows  : 

6.  CONTAINS  POUNDS  OF  DIGESTIBLE 

Chicago  Gluten  Meal  Ration.  Fat.  Protein.  Carbohydrates. 

Corn  Stalks 15  lbs.  1 

Chicago  Gluten  Meal 4 “ .55  2.57  12.53 

Wheat  Bran 6 ‘‘  j 

Nutritive*  ratio  1 to  5.4. 

It  is,  therefore,  observed  that  in  the  preparation  of  rations  one 
pound  of  gluten  meal  is  as  efficient  as  one  and  one-half  pounds 
of  gluten  feed  in  narrowing  the  nutritive  ratio  of  a ration,  or  in 
furnishing  the  nutrients  deficient  in  coarse  products. 

As  in  the  case  of  the  gluten  feeds,  other  rations  than  these, 
which  are  used  for  the  sake  of  example,  may  be  more  desirable, 
using  either  larger  or  smaller  amounts  of  the  meal  to  suit  the 
conditions  of  the  feeder. 

Grano  Gluten  Feed. 

This  feed,  while  not  strictly  a corn  product,  being  the  residue 
from  the  manufacture  of  alcohol  from  corn,  barley  and  oats,  will 
answer  practically  the  same  purpose  as  the  gluten  meal  in  the 
preparation  of  rations. 

TABLE  IV. 

Grano  Gluten  Feed. 


POUNDS  PER 

HUNDRED 

OF 

Name  and  Address. 

Water. 

1 Crude  Fat. 
1 

Crude 

Fiber. 

Crude 

Protein 

Crude  Ash 

Carbo- 

hydrates. 

884 

Grano  Gluten  Feed 

H.  H.  Shufeldt  & Co., 

Chicago,  111. 

5.17 

13.91 

10.82 

31.51 

2.71 

35.88 

888 

Grano  Gluten  Feed 

H.  H.  Shufeldt  & Co  , 

Chicago,  111. 

6.86 

13.72 

11*49 

30.38 

2.58 

34.97 

Average 

6.01 

13.82 

11.15 

30.95 

2.65 

35.42 

The  two  samples  examined  are  practically  identical  in  com- 
position, showing  a high  content  of  fat  and  protein,  but  less  of 
carbohydrates  than  the  gluten  meal,  owing  to  the  relatively  high 
percentage  of  crude  fiber. 


18 


Corn  Oil  Meal  and  Cake. 

These  products  consist  of  the  corn  germ,  from  which  the  oil 
has  been  partially  extracted  by  pressing.  The  samples  differ 
-considerably  in  their  composition,  owing,  doubtless,  to  the  more 
or  less  complete  extraction  of  the  fat. 


TABI/E  V. 

Corn  Oil  Meal  and  Corn  Oil  Cake. 


POUNDS  PER 

HUNDRED 

OF 

Name  and  Address. 

Water. 

Crude  Fat 

Crude 

Fiber. 

Crude 

Protein. 

A 

ce 

< 

a) 

TS 

3 

U 

Carbo- 

hydrates. 

873 

Corn  Oil  Meal 

Chicago  Sugar  Refining  Co., 
Chicago,  111. 

8.12 

17.11 

5.60 

23.69 

2.20 

43.28 

877 

Corn  Oil  Cake 

Chicago  Sugar  Refining  Co., 
Chicago,  111. 

8.08 

12.72 

7.62 

25.83 

2.37 

43.38 

90U 

Corn  Oil  Cake 

Chas  Pope  Glucose  Co  , 

Chicago,  111. 

10.87 

10.67 

7.00 

24.80 

2.50 

44.16 

Average 

9.02 

13.50 

6.74 

24.77 

2.35 

43.62 

On  the  average  these  products  contain  slightly  higher  per- 
centages of  fat  and  protein,  considerably  more  ash,  and  less  fiber 
and  carbohydrates  than  the  gluten  feeds.  We  have  no  extended 
data  in  reference  to  the  palatability  of  these  products,  our  ex- 
perience being  limited  to  feeding  one  lot  of  two  animals ; it  was 
absolutely  refused  by  one,  however  disguised  by  mixing,  and 
•eagerly  eaten  by  the  other.  Nothing  in  the  appearance,  mechan- 
ical condition  or  taste  would  lead  to  the  suspicion  that  these  feeds 
were  not  quite  as  palatable  as  the  products  already  discussed. 

As  yet  no  results  of  digestion  experiments  have  been  reported  ; 
assuming  the  same  co-efficients  of  digestibility  as  those  found 
for  the  gluten  feed,  their  influence  in  supplying  the  constituents 
fat  and  protein  is  shown  in  the  following  tabulation  : 


7. 

CONTAINS 

POUNDS 

OF  DIGESTIBLE 

Corn  Oil  Meal  Ration. 
Corn  Stalks 

..  10  lbs.  1 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Carbohydrates. 

Clover  Hay 

Corn  Oil  Meal 

Wheat  Bran 

• 5 “ 

..  5 “ | 

,.  5 “ 1 

.90 

2.46 

11.53 

Nutritive  ratio  1 to  5.6. 


19 


With  the  same  amounts  and  kinds  of  other  feeds  as  in  ration 
iNo  3,  it  is  shown  that  five  pounds  of  “ Corn  Oil  Meal  ” furnish 
practically  the  same  amounts  of  fat  and  protein  as  six  pounds  of 
the  “ Gluten  Feed it  is,  however,  less  rich  in  carbohydrates, 
thus  giving  a slightly  narrower  nutritive  ratio. 

Since  there  is  some  doubt  as  to  the  palatability  of  these  feeds, 
It  is  perhaps  desirable  that  in  the  first  trials  of  them  small 
amounts,  not  more  than  two  pounds  per  day,  be  used  in  con- 
nection with  products  of  known  palatability.  The  following  is, 
therefore,  recommended  as  a trial  ration : 

8. 

Corn  Oil  Meal  Ration. 

Corn  Stalks 10  lbs. 

Clover  Hay 5 “ 

Malt  Sprouts 4 “ ! 

Corn  Meal ; 1 “ J 


CONTAINS  POUNDS  OF  DIGESTIBLE 
Fat.  Protein.  Carbohydrates. 

.62  2.47  11.97 


Nutritive  ratio  1 to  5.4. 


Corn-Germ  Meal  and  Corn  Bran. 

These  products,  as  their  names  signify,  consist  in  part,  at  least, 
•of  the  germ  and  hull,  or  bran,  of  the  corn. 


TABLE  VI. 


Corn-Germ  Meal  and  Corn  Bran. 


POUNDS  PER 

HUNDRED 

OF 

Name  and  Address. 

Water. 

Crude  Fat. 

Crude 

Fiber. 

Crude 

Protein. 

Crude  Ash. 

Carbo- 

hydrates. 

i 

870 

Corn-Germ  Food 

Chas.  Pope  Glucose  Co., 

Chicago,  111. 

4.94 

16.90 

7.96 

12.07 

0.76 

57.37 

880 

Germ  Meal 

Continental  Food  Product  Co., 
Waukegan,  111. 

9.52 

4.81 

7.70 

10.63 

2.32 

65.02 

842 

Corn  Bran 

Chicago  Sugar  Refining  Co  , 
Chicago,  111. 

8.96 

7.84 

10.10 

11.83 

0.83 

60.44 

874 

Corn  Bran 

Chicago  Sugar  Refining  Co., 
Chicago,  111. 

8.07 

8.32 

12.90 

10.92 

0.79 

59.00 

879 

Corn  Hulls 

Continental  Food  Product  Co., 
Waukegan,  111. 

9.15 

3.75 

10.88 

10.16 

0.93 

65.13 

20 


A study  of  the  table  of  analyses  shows  that  all  of  the  products 
examined  agree  very  closely  in  their  content  of  protein. 

Samples  Nos.  870  and  880  are  claimed  to  he  mixtures  of  the 
germ  and  hull ; they,  however,  differ  widely  in  composition,  par- 
ticularly in  their  content  of  fat.  It  is  quite  evident  that  870 
contains  relatively  more  germ  than  bran,  and  that  880  contains 
more  bran  than  germ. 

Samples  842  and  874  agree  with  each  other  in  composition, 
showing  a much  higher  content  of  fat  than  the  corn  hulls,  and 
a much  lower  amount  than  is  contained  in  the  “ Corn-Germ 
Food.” 

Samples  Nos.  879  and  880  agree  closely  in  their  content  of  fat, 
protein  and  carbohydrates,  differing  only  in  their  content  of 
crude  fiber  and  ash.  It  is  quite  evident,  therefore,  that  the  germ 
meal  consists  more  largely  of  hulls  than  germ. 

The  manufacturers  claim  that  the  corn  hulls  are  separated 
from  the  whole  corn  entirely  by  machinery,  which  may  account 
for  the  difference  in  composition  of  the  hulls  and  bran.  It  is- 
apparent,  however,  that  the  common  name  as  applied  to  these 
products  does  not  give  definite  information  as  to  their  compo- 
sition. 

These  products,  too,  while  differing  in  the  relative  amounts  of 
their  constituents,  practically  correspond  with  the  original  pro- 
duct, corn,  in  the  ratio  of  the  flesh-formers  to  fat-formers ; hence, 
their  usefulness  in  the  preparation  of  rations  lies  in  the  same 
direction,  viz.,  in  widening  rather  than  narrowing  the  nutritive 
ratio  by  furnishing  chiefly  carbohydrates. 

In  the  following  table  an  average  analysis  of  “ Corn  Bran  ” is 
compared  with  “ Hominy  Chop”  and  “ Cerealine  Feed,”  products 
derived  in  the  manufacture  of  hominy  and  cerealine  from  corn,, 
and  consisting  largely  of  the  germ  or  hull : 


21 


TABLE  VII. 


Corn  Bran,  Hominy  Cliop  and  Cerealine  Feed. 


POUNDS  PER  HUNDRED  OF 

Name  and  Address. 

j Water. 

j Crude  Fat. 

| Crude 
Fiber. 

Crude 

Protein. 

Crude  Ash. 

Carbo- 

hydrates. 

Corn  Bran  (Average  Analysis) 

8.52 

8.08 

11.50 

11.37 

0.81 

59.72 

868 

Hominy  Chop 

Baltimore  Pearl  Hominy  Co., 
Baltimore,  Md. 

11.80 

11.17 

'2.58 

11.00 

2.92 

60.53 

860 

Hominy  Chop 

Hudnut  Co., 

Terre  Haute,  Ind. 

8.50 

8.72 

3.35 

11.30 

2.66 

65.47 

808 

Cerealine  Feed 

Cerealine  Mfg.  Co  . 

Indianapolis,  Ind 

9.39 

7.82 

5.01 

10.12 

2.50 

65.16 

The  composition  of  these  three  products,  in  reference  to  fat 
and  protein,  is  very  uniform,  and  for  most  purposes  of  feeding 
will  answer  the  same  end  in  the  preparation  of  rations,  though 
the  hominy  and  cerealine  feeds  are  much  superior  in  that  they 
-contain  less  crude  fiber  than  the  corn  bran.  They  may  all  be 
made  to  serve  a very  valuable  purpose  as  substitutes  for  corn. 
The  effect  of  the  substitution  of  any  of  these  products  for  corn 
meal  is  illustrated  in  the  two  rations  given  below,  which  are  well 
.adapted  for  milk  dairies  : 


9. 

' CONTAINS 

POUNDS 

OF  DIGESTIBLE 

Corn  Meal  Ration. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Carbohydrates. 

■Corn  Stalks 

10  lbs. 

'\  ' 

Hay 

5 

(C 

1 

i 

Corn  Meal 

5 

u 

.61 

2.45 

12.46 

Malt  Sprouts 

3 

u 

i 

Cotton-Seed  Meal 

2 

u 

j 

Nutritive  ratio  1 to  5.6. 

10. 

CONTAINS 

! POUNDS 

OF  DIGESTIBLE 

Hominy  Meal  or  Corn  Bran  Ration. 

Fat. 

Protein. 

Carbohydrates. 

Corn  Stalks 

10  lbs. 

l 

Hay 

5 

u 

i 

Hominy  Meal  or  Corn  Bran 

5 

a 

| 

.78 

2.47 

12.28 

Malt  Sprouts 

3 

u 

i 

Cotton-Seed  Meal 

2 

u 

j 

Nutritive  ratio  1 to  5.6. 


22 


Suggestions. 

A careful  review  of  the  composition  and  uses  of  the  various 
products  shows  that,  while  all  are  valuable  feeds,  there  is,  in  the- 
case  of  gluten  meal,  oil  cake  meal,  germ  meal  and  corn  bran,  or 
hulls,  the  uncertain  factor  of  variability  in  composition,  and  in 
case  of  gluten  meal  and  corn  oil  meal  the  further  disadvantage- 
for  general  feeding  of  too  great  concentration  in  fat  and  protein. 

In  the  gluten  feeds,  or  total  residue  from  the  manufacture  of 
starch,  these  criticisms  do  not  apply,  since  they  are  practically 
uniform  in  composition,  and  possess  a physical  character  which 
permits  a generous  use  for  most  purposes  of  feeding. 

It  would  seem,  therefore,  that  unless  some  good,  reason  exists 
from  the  manufacturers’  standpoint  for  the  separation  of  the  vari- 
ous parts  of  the  corn  that  general  use  would  be  promoted  by 
making  but  one  product,  which  should  consist  of  the  total 
residue.  It  would  relieve  the  purchasers  of  the  uncertainty  as 
to  composition,  reduce  the  danger  liable  to  result  from  the  care- 
less feeding  of  the  more  highly  concentrated  parts  of  the  residue, 
and  abolish  the  necessity  of  a study  of  comparative  values  as 
now  manufactured. 

As  before  stated,  the  nutrients  contained  in  the  various  residues 
described  are  similar  in  that  they  have  all  been  derived  from  the 
same  source.  The  fat  is  corn  fat,  and  the  protein  is  corn  protein, 
whatever  the  name  may  be  that  is  given  to  the  product.  That 
these  nutrients  do  virtually  have  practically  uniform  nutritive 
effects  is  shown  by  the  studies  of  digestibility  already  made. 


The  Ash  Constituents  of  Feeds. 

In  addition  to  the  organic  food  compounds  in  feeds,  the  mineral, 
or  ash,  constituents  are  of  considerable  importance,  though  they 
are  seldom  taken  into  consideration,  because  in  most  natural  food 
products  the  amount  present  is  always  more  than  sufficient*  to 
supply  the  needs  of  the  animal  for  them. 

It  has  already  been  noted  that  in  many  of  the  processes  of 
manufacture  of  starch  there  is  a very  considerable  extraction  of 
the  ash  constituents  ; this  is  shown  by  the  following  tabulation  : 


23 


POUNDS  PER  HUNDRED  OF 


Ash. 

Phosphoric  Acid. 

Potash. 

Corn 

1.50 

0.70 

0.40 

Buffalo  Gluten  Feed 

87 

.31 

.08 

Gluten  Meal 

1.29 

.56 

.07 

Chicago  Gluten  Meal 

89 

.35 

.06 

Corn  Oil  Meal 

2.28 

1.36 

.14 

Corn  Bran 

81 

.24 

.06 

With  one  exception  the  original  corn  contains  more  total  ash, 
and  more  phosphoric  acid,  and  in  every  case  more  potash  than 
any  of  the  products  derived  from  it  as  feeds. 

The  effect  of  this  exhaustion  upon  the  feeding  value  of  the 
residues  might  not  be  noticeable,  except  when  used  as  a large 
part  of  the  total  ration  for  milch  cows  or  growing  stock ; when 
the  products  are  used  in  connection  with  other  feeds  no  trouble 
is  liable  to  result  from  this  source. 


Fertility  in  Feeds. 

The  composition  of  the  ash  is  of  importance,  however,  when 
feeds  are  considered  from  the  standpoint  of  fertility.  In  the  feed 
products  derived  from  the  manufacture  of  flour  from  the  cereal 
grains,  wheat  and  rye,  the  ash  constituents — phosphoric  acid  and 
potash — exceed  in  amount  those  contained  in  the  original  grain. 
From  this  standpoint,  therefore,  they  are  valuable  because  of 
mineral  constituents  and  nitrogen,  while  the  gluten  feeds  are 
mainly  valuable  because  of  nitrogen  alone.  The  average  amount 
of  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid  and  potash  contained  in  one  ton  of 
the  various  grains,  the  gluten  or  corn  products,  and  of  wheat 
bran  and  cotton-seed  meal,  clearly  illustrates  this  point : 

POUNDS  PER  TON  OF 


Nitrogen. 

Phosphoric  Acid. 

Potash. 

Wheat 

37.8 

18.6 

12.8 

Corn 

33.0 

14.0 

8.0 

Oats 

37.0 

17.0 

13.4 

Bye 

34.0 

17.0 

11.2 

Gluten  Meal 

10.5 

11.2 

1.4 

Chicago  Gluten  Meal 

11.4 

7.0 

1.2 

Buffalo  Gluten  Feed 

'69.4 

6.8 

1.6 

Corn  Oil  Meal 

79.2 

27.2 

2.9 

Corn  Bran 

37.2 

4.8 

1.2 

Hominy  Meal 

35.8 

28.4 

14  6 

Wheat  Bran 

49.2 

57.8 

32.2 

Cotton-Seed  Meal 

135.4 

61.6 

38.0 

24 


When  it  is  remembered  that  a pound  of  any  one  of  the  fer- 
tilizer constituents  contained  in  these  feeds  is  quite  as  useful,  as 
far  as  fertilizer  effect  or  the  prevention  of  soil  exhaustion  are 
concerned,  as  when  contained  in  the  original  grain,  it  is  apparent 
that  in  the  exchange  of  grain  for  commercial  feeds— when  the 
exchange  on  the  basis  of  food  values  alone  is  advisable — a very 
considerable  increase  in  fertility  values  may  be  obtained  without 
any  direct  expenditure. 

A number  of  these  feeds  have  been  used  with  satisfaction  by 
our  farmers  ; if  they  are  not  obtainable  from  local  dealers  they 
may  doubtless  be  secured  from  the  manufacturers,  whose  addresses 
are  given  in  the  tables  of  analyses. 

In  purchasing  it  should  be  remembered — 

1.  That  while  all  are  derived  from  corn,  the  gluten  feed  con- 
sists of  the  whole  corn  less  a large  part  of  the  starch,  and  that 
because  of  its  good  physical  character  and  richness  in  fat  and 
protein,  it  is  well  adapted  for  use  with  coarse  farm  products  in 
the  preparation  of  rations  either  for  dairy  cows  or  for  fattening 
stock. 

2.  That  the  gluten  meal,  which  does  not  contain  the  hull  or 
germ,  is  still  more  valuable  as  a source  of  fat  and  protein  than 
the  feed,  and  because  of  its  concentration  in  bulk  and  richness, 
in  these  constituents,  should  be  fed  with  greater  care. 

3.  That  the  corn  oil  meal  and  cake,  which  consist  of  the 
pressed  germ,  are  very  rich  in  fat  and  protein,  and  should  not 
be  fed  in  excessive  amounts. 

4.  That  the  corn  bran  and  corn  germ,  wdiich  consist  chiefly  of 
the  hulls  and  germ,  are  rich  in  fat  and  carbohydrates,  and  are 
excellent  substitutes  for  corn  meal. 

EDWARD  B.  VOORHEES, 

Director . 

New  Brunswick,  N.  J.,  November  20th,  1894. 


7^.  £ /W 


O 


/ 

THE  SAN  JOSE  SCALE  IN  NEW  JERSEY. 


NEW  JERSEY 


Agricultural  College 


tatton 


106 


NEW  JERSEY  AGRICULTURAL  COLLEGE  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


BOARD  OF  CONTROL. 


The  Board  of  Trustees  of  Rutgers  College  in  New  Jersey. 


EXECUTIVE  COMMITTEE  OF  THE  BOARD. 

AUSTIN  SCOTT,  Ph.D.,  LL.D.,  President  of  Rutgers  College,  Chairman. 
Hon.  GEORGE  C.  LUDLOW,  HENRY  R.  BALDWIN,  M.D.,  LL.D., 

Hon.  HENRY  W.  BOOKSTAVER,  LL.D.,  JAMES  NEILSON,  Esq. 


STAFF  OF  THE  STATION. 

AUSTIN  SCOTT,  Ph.D.,  LL.D.,  Director. 

Professor  JULIUS  NELSON,  Ph.D.,  Biologist. 

Professor  BYRON  D.  HALSTED,  Sc.D , Botanist  and  Horticulturist. 
Professor  JOHN  B.  SMITH,  Sc.D.,  Entomologist. 

ELTSHA  A.  JONES,  B.S.,  Superintendent  of  College  Farm. 

IRVING  S.  UPSON,  A.M.,  Disbursing  Clerk  and  Librarian. 
CHARLES  A.  POULSON,  Mailing  Assistant. 

LEONORA  E.  BURWELL,  Clerk  to  the  Director. 

AUGUSTA  E.  MESKE,  Stenographer  and  Typewriter. 


NEW  JERSEY 

Agricultural  College  Experiment  Station. 

BULLETIN  106. 

NOVEMBER  22,  1894. 


The  San  Jose  Scale  in  New  Jersey. 


BY  JOHN  B.  SMITH,  ENTOMOLOGIST. 


The  above  species,  Aspidiotus  perniciosus,  Comstock,  is  said  by 
its  describe!*  to  be  “the  most  destructive  of  the  scale-making 
Coccids.”  It  is  supposed  to  be  a native  of  Chile,  or  to  have  been 
first  brought  from  that  country  to  California  about  1870.  It  was 
noticed  at  San  Jos6  in  1873,  the  popular  name  being  derived 
from  this  fact,  and  spread  rapidly  until  1880,  when  Prof.  J.  H. 
Comstock,  then  U.  S.  Entomologist,  collected  it  in  Santa  Clara 
county  and  first  gave  it  a scientific  name.  The  specific  name, 
perniciosus , was  intended  to  express  the  author’s  estimate  of  its 
character,  as  he  found  it  swarming  in  countless  numbers  in  cer- 
tain orchards,  infesting  all  deciduous  fruit  trees  except  the  apricot 
and  Black  Tartarian  cherry.  In  1892  the  insect  had  spread 
through  all  the  fruit-growing  regions  of  California,  through 
Oregon  and  into  the  State  of  Washington.  It  has  caused  great 
pecuniary  loss,  many  crops  of  fruit  have  been  ruined  and  thou- 
sands of  trees  have  been  killed. 

The  insect  enemies  of  farmers  more  than  a thousand  miles  off 
do  not  greatly  interest  the  agriculturists  of  New  Jersey,  who  have 
enough  to  attend  to  at  home ; hence,  naturally,  no  one  ever  con- 


4 


sidered  the  San  Jos6  scale  as  a creature  which  it  was  necessary 
to  know ; and  this  proved  unfortunate. 

In  the  summer  of  1893,  Dr.  C.  V.  Riley,  then  U.  S.  Entomolo- 
gist, announced  to  the  Association  of  Economic  Entomologists, 
meeting  at  Madison,  Wisconsin,  that  the  insect  had  been  found 
infesting  a small  orchard  at  Charlottesville,  Virginia.  At  that 
time  the  source  from  which  the  infection  came  was  not  known, 
and  an  accidental  introduction  on  infested  fruit  was  deemed 
probable.  Radical  measures  were  to  be  adopted  to  stamp  out 
what  was  then  supposed  to  be  a solitary  plague-spot. 

In  April,  1894,  a circular  was  issued  from  the  Division  of 
Entomology,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  calling  the  atten- 
tion of  fruit-growers  to  this  scale,  stating  its  history  and  spread, 
enumerating  the  points  in  the  East  at  which  it  was  known  to 
occur,  and  closing  one  paragraph  with  the  words  : “ The  owner 
stated  that  the  scales  were  first  noticed  three  years  ago,  and 
expressed  himself  as  of  the  opinion  that  the  insect  was  brought 
into  this  orchard  on  nursery  stock  purchased  from  a New  Jersey 
dealer.” 

This  attracted  my  attention  at  once,  and  I decided  to  find  the 
offending  nursery  or  nurseries,  to  check,  if  possible,  further  dis- 
tribution of  the  pest.  Letters  were  sent  to  the  leading  establish- 
ments in  our  State,  and  I made  excursions  in  rapid  succession  to 
those  points  where  horticulture  is  a leading  industry,  examining 
the  stock  in  the  hands  of  dealers,  and  also  many  orchards  recently 
set  out.  I soon  located  two  nurseries,  both  large  and  well  known, 
which  were  infested  by  the  scale,  and  these,  so  far  as  I have  been 
able  to  ascertain,  are  the  only  distributing  centers  in  our  State. 
It  is  not  deemed  necessary  to  name  at  this  time  the  establish- 
ments which  have  unintentionally  introduced  the  scale  into  New 
Jersey  and  into  a number  of  surrounding  States.  The  gentlemen 
concerned  acted  in  ignorance  and  not  in  bad  faith ; they  are 
taking  active  steps  to  stamp  out  the  insect  on  their  bearing  trees, 
and  have  adopted  measures  which  will,  if  faithfully  carried  out, 
prevent  the  shipment  of  other  infested  stock.  It  is  also  con- 
sidered advisable  to  induce  farmers  to  examine  all  fruit  stock 
carefully  before  setting  it  out,  and  to  that  end  they  should  be 
suspicious  of  all  nurseries. 


This  is  perhaps  as  good  a place  as  any  to  say  that  there  are 
several  nurseries  on  Long  Island  in  which  the  scale  is  present ; 
that  one  at  least,  in  another  part  of  New  York  State,  is  suspected, 
and  that  in  Missouri  we  know  of  another  which  has  distributed 
scaly  stock.  All  material,  therefore,  whether  received  from  our 
own  or  foreign  nurseries,  should  be  critically  looked  over  before 
being  set  out. 

Introduction  of  tlie  Scale. 

The  history  of  the  introduction  of  the  scale  is  practically  the 
same  at  both  the  infested  nurseries  in  our  State.  In  either  1886 
or  1887  each  imported  from  California  a lot  of  Kelsey  plum 
trees,  the  fruit  of  which  was  said  to  be  “ curculio-proof,”  and 
otherwise  desirable,  and  with  them  other  Japanese  varieties  were- 
also  received.  In  both  cases  the  trees  looked  bad,  wrere  weak, 
made  little  growth,  and  after  remaining  in  the  nursery  for  two< 
years  were  taken  out  and  destroyed.  It  was  afterward  remem- 
bered that  they  seemed  scaly  ; but  no  especial  attention  was  paid 
to  this  at  the  time,  and  the  nature  of  the  scale  was  not  suspected. 
It  is  almost  certain  that  these  trees  carried  this  scale  in  large 
numbers,  and  from  them  the  insects  spread  to  the  nearest  bear- 
ing fruit  trees,  on  which  they  multiplied  exceedingly.  In  one 
case  a row  of  Bartlett  pear  trees  adjoined  the  block  in  which  the- 
Kelsey  plums  were  grown,  and  these  I found  to  be  covered  from 
base  of  trunk  to  the  tip  of  the  twigs  ; scarcely  a bit  of  bark  being 
visible.  The  trees  were  nearly  dead,  and  were  at  my  suggestion 
taken  out  at  once  and  burnt.  From  this  row  of  trees  the  scales 
annually  spread  to  the  nursery  stock  round  about,  so  that  in  an 
entire  block,  containing  thousands  of  young  fruit  trees,  scarcely 
one  could  be  found  without  a few  scales  fixed  on  it.  At  all 
events,  in  both  instances,  the  scale  spread  rapidly,  and  about 
1889  or  1890  the  first  scaly  stock  was  distributed.  Since  that 
time  every  year  has  continued  the  distribution  of  the  insects,, 
though  it  is  probable  that  in  the  majority  of  instances  they  failed 
to  establish  themselves  in  their  new  homes.  There  is  reason  to 
believe  that  some  Idaho  pear  stock,  received  from  Western 
nurseries  and  shipped  without  further  growth  to  purchasers,  was 
also  infested  when  set  out. 


6 


Spread  of  the  Scale  in  New  Jersey. 

It  was  considered  important  to  ascertain  just  how  far  the  scale 
had  been  distributed  in  our  State,  and  to  what  extent  the  insect 
had  spread  from  the  points  at  which  it  was  introduced.  The 
nurserymen  could  and  did  give  me  willing  and  efficient  assist- 
ance here,  and  furnished  lists  of  names  of  persons  to  whom 
suspicious  stock  had  been  sent  for  five  years  past.  These  lists 
aggregated  nearly  1,000  names,  and  to  each  individual  a letter 
was  written,  inclosing  a copy  of  the  circular  above  referred  to  as 
published  by  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture.  A supply 
of  these  circulars  was  kindly  furnished  the  Station  at  different 
times  by  the  Department,  through  Dr.  C.  V.  Riley  and  Mr.  L.  0. 
Howard,  each  at  the  time  holding  the  position  of  U.  S.  Ento- 
mologist, and  these  gentlemen  have  in  all  ways  facilitated  my 
work  by  suggestions,  information  and  assistance.  Replies  to  my 
letter  were  received  in  considerable  number,  and  I soon  located 
a number  of  infested  orchards  and  centers  of  infection.  I real- 
ized that  I could  not  depend  upon  correspondence  alone  in  this 
matter  and  spent  more  than  twenty  days  in  active  field  work, 
examining  thousands  of  trees  and  visiting  a very  large  number 
of  orchards.  My  plan  was  to  visit  one  of  the  horticulturists  on 
my  list,  and  have  him  drive  me  about  in  his  neighborhood ; 
especially  to  those  places  where  young  orchards  had  been  recently 
.set  out.  Thus,  I found  a large  number  of  places  where  the  scale 
was  present,  and  owe  thanks  to  the  gentlemen  who  so  willingly 
gave  their  time  and  local  knowledge  to  aid  my  investigations. 

The  result  has  been,  on  the  whole,  encouraging.  In  one  case 
only  had  the  scale  spread  beyond  the  trees  that  were  infested 
when  received  from  the  nurseries  ; and  while  many  of  these  were 
so  badly  infested  that  I advised  taking  them  out  immediately,  I 
believe  that  in  most  instances  they  can  be  easily  cleaned.  I 
found,  curiously  enough,  that  all  the  infested  orchards  are  south 
of  the  red  shale.  This  formation  crosses  the  State  obliquely 
from  Island  View,  opposite  Staten  Island,  on  the  Atlantic  Coast, 
to  Trenton,  on  the  Delaware,  and  extends  northward  ; clay,  marl, 
loam  and  sand  succeeding  it  to  the  south.  I do  not  mean  to 
assert  that  the  scale  does  not  exist  on  the  red  shale  or  northward  ; 


7 


but  simply  that  I have  not  found  it  there,  and  have  not  had  any 
information  which  leads  me  to  suspect  its  presence.  South  of 
the  border  indicated  I have  located  the  insects  in  every  county. 
It  is  certain  that  climate  has  nothing  to  do  with  the  absence  of 
the  pest  in  the  northern  half  of  our  State,  because  it  is  known 
to  exist  on  Long  Island  and  in  an  orchard  in  Columbia  county, 
N.  Y.,  and  it  may  be  accident,  merely,  that  is  responsible  for  the 
.apparent  exemption  from  attack  of  the  region  mentioned.  It 
wTill  not  do  for  farmers  to  assume  that  the  scale  cannot  maintain 
itself  in  localities  thus  far  uninfested  ; but,  on  the  contrary,  they 
should  be  especially  cautious  not  to  introduce  it  where  it  does 
not  already  exist.  Nothing  will  be  gained  by  enumerating  the 
orchards  in  which  this  insect  occurs,  or  even  the  townships  in 
wdiich  they  are  located  ; there  are  nearly  one  hundred  of  them 
known  to  me,  and  probably  there  are  more  in  places  not  visited, 
;and  from  which  I received  no  replies  to  my  letter.  It  is  prob- 
able, also,  that  the  insect  exists  on  fruit  trees  in  some  of  the 
gardens  in  the  many  towns  and  villages  along  the  Delaware,  and 
within  a short  distance  south  and  west  from  Camden  on  all  the 
;railroads.  Its  absence  should  be  nowhere  assumed. 


California  Fruit  Infested. 

While,  so  far  as  we  know  at  present,  all  the  existing  scales  in 
Yew  Jersey  are  traceable  to  nursery  stock,  yet  there  exists  a con- 
tinuous danger  from  California  fruit,  and  especially  pears.  I 
found  in  the  markets  of  Philadelphia,  Newark,  New  York  and 
Brooklyn  any  number  of  pears  with  this  scale  conspicuously 
present,  and  noticed  it  on  some  of  the  fruit  sold  on  the  trains 
out  of  Philadelphia  and  New  York.  At  the  meeting  of  the 
Association  of  Economic  Entomologists,  at  Brooklyn,  N.  Y., 
during  August,  1894,  this  insect  was  discussed,  and  I purchased 
at  the  first  handy  fruit  stand  half  a dozen  California  pears  and 
exhibited  them.  Every  fruit  was  infested  mpre  or  less,  male  and 
female  scales  being  equally  abundant,  and  on  one  fruit  the  active 
yellow  larvae  were  found  in  some  numbers,  crawling  about  and 
.seeking  a place  to  fix.  Should  a pear  of  this  kind,  or  the  peel- 


8 


ings  from  it,  find  lodgment  near  or  on  any  plant  suitable  for  its 
existence,  there  would  be  nothing  to  prevent  the  establishment 
of  a colony. 

Life  History. 

As  the  study  of  this  insect  is  a matter  of  national  importance, 
it  has  been  taken  in  hand  by  the  Division  of  Entomology  of  the- 
U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture.  Indeed,  the  insect  had  been 


SAN  JOSE  SCALE. 

a,  California  pear,  moderately  infested— natural  size;  b,  female  scale — enlarged. 

studied,  and  its  life  history  ascertained  in  California  years  agor 
so  we  are  quite  familiar  with  its  general  habits  and  development. 
I deemed  it  unnecessary  to  duplicate  work,  and  have  made  no 
attempt  at  an  original  study.  I have  confined  myself  to  observ- 
ing the  development  and  habits  of  the  insect  in  our  State,  and 


9 


to  ascertaining  those  points  that  are  practically  important  in  its 
treatment.  The  life  history  that  follows  is  therefore  taken  in  its 
•essential  features  from  Circular  No.  3,  Second  Series,  of  the  U.  S. 
Department  of  Agriculture,  Division  of  Entomology,  supple- 
mented by  my  New  Jersey  observations.  The  illustrations  are 
also  from  the  above-mentioned  circular,  electrotypes  being  pro- 
cured by  the  courtesy  of  the  officers  of  the  Department. 

The  San  Jose  scale  belongs  to  the  group  of  armored  scale  in- 
sects to  which  the  common  oyster-shell  bark-louse  of  the  apple 
belongs.  It  differs  from  that  species  in  that  the  scale  is  perfectly 
round,  or  at  most  very  slightly  elongated  and  irregular.  In 
these  particulars  it  resembles  the  “scurfy  scale,”  Chionaspis 
furfurus,  or  “ Harris  louse,”  as  it  seems  to  be  quite  universally 
called  in  this  State ; but  it  is  decidedly  smaller  and  more  convex 
than  the  latter  species.  Its  round  shape  and  small  size  dis- 
tinguish it  at  a glance  from  all  the  other  species  infesting  decid- 
uous fruit  trees  in  our  State.  It  is  quite  flat,  a little  raised  in 
the  center,  pressed  close  to 
the  tree  around  the  edges, 
resembles  the  bark  of  the 
twigs  in  color,  and  when  full 
grown  is  decidedly  less  than 
one-eighth  of  an  inch  in 
diameter.  Perhaps  the  ma- 
jority of  the  scales  do  not 
equal  one-sixteenth  of  an 
inch  wdiere  they  are  closely 
crowded  together  ; but  where 
a few  only  are  found  on  the 
succulent  shoots,  or  on  fruit, 
they  become  larger,  and  the 
females  may  in  extreme 
cases  reach  nearly  one-eighth 
of  an  inch.  The  males 
rarely  exceed  one-sixteenth 
inch  in  diameter.  At  or  near  the  middle  of  each  scale  is  a small, 
round,  slightly  elongated  black  point ; or  this  point  may  some- 
times appear  yellowish. 


Fig.  2. 


SAN  JOSE  SCALE. 

Apple  branch,  with  scales  in  situ — natural  size ; 
enlarged  scales  above,  at  left 


10 


When  occurring  upon  the  bark  of  twigs  or  leaves  in  largo 
numbers  the  scales  lie  close  to  each  other,  frequently  overlapping, 
and  they  are  at  such  times  difficult  to  distinguish  without  a mag- 
nifying glass.  The  general  appearance  which  they  present  is  a 
grayish,  very  slightly  roughened,  scurfy  deposit.  This  is  much 
more  prominent  on  trees  like  the  peach,  or  those  varieties  of 
apple  and  pear  that  have  a reddish  color,  and  when  these  are 
thickly  infested  they  seem  to  be  coated  with  dust  or  ashes. 
When  the  scales  are  crushed  by  scraping,  a yellowish,  oily  liquid 
will  appear,  coming  from  the  soft  yellow  insects  beneath  the- 
scales,  and  this  will  at  once  indicate  to  one  who  is  not  familiar 
with  their  appearance  the  existence  of  healthy  living  insects 
beneath  the  scaly  covering. 

They  are  easily  scraped  off  with  the  finger  nail,  and  the  bark 
beneath  them  will  be  seen  to  he  darker  in  color.  The  natural 


larger  ones,  and  sometimes  appear  quite  black ; while  on  the 
other  hand,  those  that  are  just  set  may  be  white  or  yellowish. 
During  the  winter  the  insect  is  to  be  found  in  the  half  or 


SAN  JOSE  SCALE. 

a,  young  larva— greatly  enlarged  ; b,  antenna  of 
same— still  more  enlarged. 


Fig.  3. 


color  of  the  bark  is  also 
somewhat  changed,  as  will 
be  seen  by  comparing  the 
places  from  which  the  scales 
have  been  removed  with  the 
spots  upon  which  the  scales 
do  not  occur,  while  the  cir- 
cumference beyond  the  scales 
frequently  becomes  changed 
in  color  to  a somewhat 
purplish  or  crimson  shade. 
Where  the  scales  do  not 
occur  so  thickly  they  are 
more  perceptible,  and  upon 
young,  reddish  twigs  the 
contrast  is  quite  noticeable 
as  the  scales  there  appear 
light  gray.  Younger  and 
smaller  scales  are  darker  in 
color  than  the  older  and 


11 


nearly  full-grown  condition,  and  as  soon  as  the  trees  resume 
activity  in  spring  the  insects  resume  their  feeding.  In  New 
Jersey  they  reach  their  full  growth  during  the  latter  part  of  May, 
and  the  young  begin  to  hatch  and  to  crawl  from  under  the 
female  scales  during  the  first  week  in  June,  and  from  this  time 
through  the  summer  there  is  a constant  succession  of  generations. 
The  first  living  larvae  that  I received  reached  me  June  11th, 
having  been  gathered  June  10th,  and  at  that  time  I found  on 
the  twigs  a number  of  young  scales  that  had  just  set,  indicating 
that  active  larvae  had  been  about  at  least  three  or  four  days 
previously.  Up  to  June  15th  every  infested  tree  examined 
showed  active  young  larvae,  and  after  that  time  there  seemed  to 


SAN  JOSE  SCALE. 

Male  adult— greatly  enlarged. 

be  a period  of  about  a week  or  ten  days  during  which  no  larvae 
were  noticed.  Early  in  July,  however,  young  larvae  were  again 
active  and  crawling  about  everywhere,  and  this  condition  of 
affairs  continued  throughout  the  balance  of  the  summer,  extend- 
ing through  October,  and  even  into  the  first  part  of  November ; 
until,  in  other  words,  the  trees  had  become  quite  dormant.  The 
young  louse  is  an  active,  crawling  creature,  very  minute  and 


yellowish  in  color.  The  young  spread  out  upon  the  new  growth 
of  the  tree,  settle  down,  and  each  begins  to  secrete  a scale.  The 
male  is  an  active  two-winged  insect,  while  the  full-grown  female 
loses  her  legs  and  antennae,  and  bears  a very  slight  resemblance 
to  a living  creature. 


SAN  JOSE  SCALE. 

c,  adult  female  containing  young— greatly  enlarged ; d,  anal  fringe  of  same— still 
more  enlarged. 

The  insect  affects  not  only  the  young  twigs  and  limbs,  but 
covers  as  well  the  trunk  to  the  surface  of  the  ground,  and  exists 
upon  the  leaves  and  upon  the  fruit.  When  it  is  abundant  the 
fruit  is  destroyed,  or  at  least  rendered  unfit  for  market.  One  of 
the  most  characteristic  points  in  the  appearance  of  the  insect 
upon  fruit  is  the  purple  discoloration  around  the  edge  of  each 
scale.  So  far  as  we  know,  this  result  is  confined  to  this  species 
alone.  Upon  the  leaves  the  insects  have  a tendency  to  collect 
along  the  midrib  on  the  upper  side  of  the  leaf  in  one  or  more 
quite  regular  rows,  and  also  to  some  extent  along  the  side  ribs. 
The  infested  leaves  turn  brown ; but  do  not  have  a tendency  to 
fall  as  a result  of  the  damage. 


13 


There  are  two  points  of  interest  and  importance  to  be  noted 
in  this  life  history.  The  first  is,  that  the  insect  passes  the  winter 
beneath  the  scales  in  a partly-grown  condition.  Usually  they 
are  about  half  grown ; but  some  will  be  younger  and  some  will 
be  older.  They  seem  to  continue  reproduction  until  the  tree  is 
entirely  dormant,  and  no  further  food  is  obtainable.  On  the 
other  hand,  they  do  not  seem  to  renew  growth  very  early  in 
spring,  but  are  slow  to  begin  reproduction ; no  larvae  having 
been  noted  until  June,  as  has  been  already  stated.  The  second 
point  is,  that  once  they  begin  there  is  practically  no  period  dur- 
ing the  summer  at  which  the  young,  active,  crawling  lice  are  not 
to  be  found  upon  the  tree.  The  length  of  time  during  which  a 
given  female  will  continue  to  reproduce  has  not  been  ascertained  ; 
but  it  seems  likely  from  what  has  been  observed  that  breeding 
continues  for  quite  a long  time,  and  that  the  female  scales  that 
have  lived  during  the  winter  may  continue  to  live  on  and  repro- 
duce during  the  greatest  portion  of  the  summer,  when  their 
daughters  and  grand-daughters  are  already  full  grown,  with 
nearly  full-grown  progeny.  There  may  be,  therefore,  upon  a 
plant  at  one  time,  young  born  of  as  many  as  three  or  even  four 
distinct  generations.  As  nearly  as  I have  been  able  to  ascertain 
from  my  observations  during  the  present  season,  a little  less  than 
a month  is  required  to  bring  an  insect  to  maturity.  That  is,  a 
larva  hatched  to-day  will  be  ready  one  month  hence  to  bring 
forth  living  young  in  turn,  and  this  will  allow  at  least  four  if 
not  five  distinct  broods  during  the  summer  and  fall. 


How  the  Insect  Spreads. 

It  has  been  stated  that  the  male  of  this  species  is  a winged 
insect.  It  is  very  minute,  scarcely  noticeable  without  a lens, 
very  light  and  frail,  at  the  mercy  of  the  least  puff  of  wind,  and 
incapable  of  any  great  journey.  The  female  has  no  perceptible 
legs,  and  is  utterly  incapable  of  motion.  She  resembles  a yellow- 
ish or  orange,  flattened  seed,  in  bulk  many  times  that  of  the 
male ; but  firmly  fixed  to  one  point  by  the  scaly  covering  wThich 
is  at  once  her  protection  and  her  grave.  The  young  are  active 
for  a very  brief  time,  two  or  three  days  at  most,  and  they  crawl 


14 


with  considerable  rapidity  and  great  persistence,  so  that  they 
might  possibly  descend  from  one  tree  and  crawl  for  a number  of 
yards  to  another ; but  the  spread  in  this  manner  is  insignificant. 
Where  trees  are  close  together  they  may  pass  from  the  branches 
of  one  to  the  branches  of  another ; but  I have  found  that  they 
rarely  crawl  long  in  any  one  direction  ; they  rather  move  around, 
rapidly  enough,  yet  irregularly  and  at  random.  Usually  they 
do  not  go  farther  than  is  necessary  to  find  a good  place  to  fix, 
and  at  once  begin  to  form  a scale.  This  process  is  rather  interest- 
ing and  can  be  watched.  As  soon  as  the  young  louse  has  inserted 
its  beak  into  the  plant,  and  has  begun  to  feed,  a change  comes- 
over  it,  and  within  a few  hours  it  is  entirely  covered  by  a fine, 
white,  waxy  film.  This  turns  first  yellow  and  then  gray  or  even 
black,  and  the  creature  is  a fixture,  absolutely  incapable  thereafter 
of  shifting  its  location  under  any  possible  circumstances.  Strong 
winds  may  carry  the  young  bodily  from'  one  tree  to  another ; 
but  the  principal  method  of  spread  is  by  means  of  other  insects 
which  are  winged,  and  by  birds.  The  active  young  lice  will 
soon  crawl  upon  any  small  winged  insect,  particularly  if  the 
latter  is  of  a dark  color,  and  they  may  be  carried  by  it  to  con- 
siderable distances.  They  also  crawl  upon  the  feet  of  birds  which 
visit  the  trees,  and  may  thus  be  carried  for  miles.  They  are- 
often  found  upon  ants,  and  ants,  as  everyone  knows,  are  great 
travelers.  This  difficulty  in  moving  from  one  place  to  another, 
and  the  dependence  upon  external  agency  for  their  distribution, 
will  account  for  the  fact  that  trees  here  and  there  in  an  orchard 
newly  set  out,  may  be  very  badly  infested,  while  not  a trace  will 
be  seen  on  the  trees  on  either  side.  Few  birds  or  insects  visit  a. 
young  orchard  that  is  at  all  well  kept,  and  the  distance  between 
the  trees,  especially  if  the  land  is  cultivated,  is  altogether  too- 
great  to  be  covered  by  the  young  lice,  even  did  they  know  enough 
to  make  a bee-line  for  the  nearest  point.  The  result  is  that  every- 
thing fixes  upon  the  tree  on  which  it  was  hatched,  killing  it  more 
rapidly  than  would  otherwise  be  the  case ; but  at  all  events 
confining  and  preventing  spread  to  points  not  theretofore  infested. 
This  also  explains  why  nursery  stock  is  so  evenly  troubled : 
here  the  trees  are  grown  just  as  closely  together  as  is  possible,  in 
rows,  and  there  is  no  hindrance  to  crawling  from  one  to  the  other. 


15 


As  the  insects  must  feed  for  a time  in  spring  before  attaining 
their  full  growth,  it  follows  that  only  such  as  are  fixed  to  the- 
tree  itself  have  any  chance  of  reproducing  their  kind.  Those- 
that  fix  to  the  leaves  fall  with  them,  and  as  these  dry  or  decay 
the  insect  dies  for  want  of  food  before  attaining  maturity.  We- 
have,  thus,  to  consider  only  the  wood,  free  of  all  leaves,  when 
attempting  the  destruction  of  the  insect. 


Varieties  of  Fruit  Infested. 

All  our  deciduous  fruit  trees  are  attacked  by  this  insect ; though 
not  to  the  same  extent.  In  addition,  currant,  gooseberry  and 
rose-bushes  are  infested,  and  it  is  probable  that  the  entire  natural 
order  Rosacese  will  support  the  species.  In  addition,  a single 
specimen  of  a European  variety  of  elm  was  found  densely  cov- 
ered by  it,  and  I found  a few  specimens  apparently  of  this  species; 
on  an  English  walnut,  growing  next  an  infested  pear  tree.  Com- 
paratively few  scaly  peach  trees  were  found  in  my  observations. 
This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  infested  nurseries  do  not  grow 
their  own  stock  of  this  fruit,  but  have  it  grown  elsewhere.  It  is. 
shipped  to  them  in  bulk,  heeled  in,  and  reshipped  as  ordered. 
Anything  left  over  is  destroyed.  Apples,  pears,  plums  and 
cherries  are  the  usual  victims,  and  pear  trees  more  than  any 
others.  Quince  is  more  rarely  troubled.  Among  the  plums  the 
Japanese  varieties  are  favorites,  while  those  of  American  and 
European  origin  suffer  much  less.  The  apples  seem  to  be  equally 
affected,  and  I noticed  no  markedly  exempt  varieties.  Pears 
differ  greatly  in  susceptibility.  European  stocks  and  varieties 
are  nearly  equally  subject ; Idahos,  in  my  experience  suffer  most, 
closely  followed  by  the  Lawson,  Garber,  Madam  von  Siebold, 
Sin-Sin,  Lawrence  and  Bartlett.  The  varieties  of  pears  are  legion,, 
and  all  of  them  support  the  scale.  The  Japan  Golden  Russet  is 
a vigorous  grower,  and  is  not  a favorite  with  the  insect.  Still 
less  infested  is  the  Leconte,  while  the  Keiffer  is  almost  exempt. 
A striking  example  of  this  difference  I found  in  a tree  upon 
which  both  Lawson  and  Keiffer  were  grafted ; the  Lawson 
branches,  leaves  and  fruit  were  completely  covered,  while  the 
Keiffer  portion  was  entirely  free  from  scales.  In  several  instances 


16 


where  Keiffers  were  set  in  trial-rows  with  other  varieties,  the 
branches  intermingling,  the  Keiffers  were  entirely  clear,  while 
all  the  others  were  more  or  less  infested.  The  Leconte  was  nearly 
as  fortunate,  and  where  there  is  opportunity  for  choice  these 
varieties  will  be  exempt.  I was  inclined  to  believe  that  the 
Keiffer  was  scale-proof  until  October,  when  I received  specimens 
of  infested  twigs  of  this  variety,  and  learnt  of  an  orchard  of 
these  trees  in  which  the  insects  were  abundantly  present.  I 
have  learnt  since  that  time  of  several  instances  where  this  variety 
has  been  more  or  less  troubled,  and  no  further  doubt  exists, 
therefore,  that  under  proper  conditions — unfortunately  we  do  not 
yet  know  what  these  conditions  are — the  insects  will  exist  and 
multiply  on  it  as  readily  as  on  any  other.  Yet  withal,  the 
Keiffer  is  least  likely  to  be  attacked  in  my  experience  where  other 
varieties  are  at  hand.  But  it  is  not  exempt,  and  no  variety  is 
•entirely  immune. 

Natural  Enemies. 

I have  been  asked  on  several  occasions  whether  this  insect 
had  no  parasites.  It  has.  I have  bred  specimens  of  Aphelinus 
Juscipennis,  Howard,  a very  minute,  yellowish,  parasitic  wasp, 
from  the  scales  in  moderate  numbers,  and  this  same  species  has 
been  bred  from  it  in  California.  I am  informed  by  Mr.  Howard, 
U.  S.  Entomologist,  that  up  to  September  no  parasites  had  been 
bred  in  the  East  by  any  investigator  other  than  myself,  and  also 
that  this  little  Aphelinus  occurs  all  over  the  country,  and  is  a 
foe  to  scale  insects  generally.  Not  one  per  cent,  of  the  scales 
collected  by  me  and  carried  through  in  the  laboratory  were 
parasitized,  and  in  the  field  it  was  difficult  to  find  a destroyed 
specimen.  As  a slight  check  to  increase,  this  little  species  has  a 
value ; but  no  actual  reduction,  or  even  a restriction  to  present 
numbers,  is  to  be  hoped  for  from  its  efforts.  It  is  only  fair  to 
add,  however,  that  in  one  case  in  California  the  insect  “ had 
been  found  doing  such  effective  work  in  subduing  the  species  in 
an  orchard  in  the  neighborhood  of  Los  Angeles  that  a complete 
restoration  of  the  orchard  was  confidently  expected.” 

Two  species  of  lady-birds  were  also  observed  in  some  num- 
bers feeding  on  the  scale.  The  most  prominent  was  Chilocorus 


17 


bivulnerus,  the  “ twice-stabbed  lady-bird,”  which  is  black,  almost 
hemispherical  above,  one-eighth  of  an  inch  in  length,  and  has  a 
blood-red  spot  in  the  middle  of  each  wing-cover.  The  other 
species  is  Pentilia  misella,  to  which  no  common  name  has  been 
applied,  and  which  is  a minute  black  creature,  scarcely  as  large 
as  the  scale  itself.  These  beetles  and  their  larvae  undoubtedly 
devour  many  of  the  scales  and  their  larvae ; but  they  do  not 
occur  in  numbers  great  enough  to  check  the  increase  and  further 
spread  of  the  pernicious  scale. 

No  trust  can  he  safely  placed  in  these  natural  enemies.  A 
little  active  winter  work  now,  will  benefit  the  farmer  more  than 
all  the  “natural  enemies”  can  possibly  advantage  him  in  ten 
years  to  come. 


Remedies. 

This  scale  can  be  so  much  more  satisfactorily  treated  in  winter 
that  I strongly  urge  an  attack  upon  it  during  the  present  season. 
No  fruit-grower,  on  ever  so  small  a scale,  can  afford  to  allow  this 
insect  to  remain  on  his  trees,  and  all  farmers  should  carefully 
examine  every  tree  received  and  set  out  within  the  six  years  last 
past,  to  make  sure  that  the  pest  does  not  exist  upon  any  of  them. 

Our  large  orchardists  are,  as  a rule,  careful  of  their  trees,  and 
many  are  in  the  habit  of  winter-treating  them.  In  two  or 
possibly  three  instances,  I feel  convinced  that  the  scale  has  been 
killed  off  where  it  was  present  without  the  knowledge  of  the 
owner.  In  one  case  the  trees  were  washed  with  a saturated 
solution  of  commercial  potash ; in  another  the  trees  were  kept 
constantly  whitewashed  ; in  the  third,  and  doubtful  case,  whale- 
oil  soap  was  used,  and  here  I am  not  so  certain  that  the  scales 
had  been  really  present.  In  another  instance  I found  a number 
of  apple  trees  with  a few  scales  near  the  tip  of  the  twigs,  and  a 
very  few  on  the  fruit.  In  this  case  the  arsenites  and  Bordeaux 
mixture  are  used  each  year,  and  whenever  the  trees  are  sprayed 
the  trunks  and  larger  branches  receive  a special  coating.  No 
scales  were  found  there,  and  though  the  trees  had  been  set  out 
five  or  six  years,  and  must  have  been  infested  when  received, 
they  were  thrifty  and  vigorous.  The  scale  had  barely  main- 


18 


tained  itself,  and  there  were  probably  fewer  specimens  than  when 
the  trees  left  the  nursery. 

If  such  good  results  follow  from  what  is  considered  by  some 
of  our  horticulturists  merely  proper  care  of  an  orchard,  we  may 
reasonably  hope  that  special  treatment  directed  to  the  extermina- 
tion of  this  particular  scale  may  be  even  more  successful. 

In  selecting  materials  to  use  for  the  destruction  of  scales,  we 
liave  to  consider,  first,  the  character  of  the  creatures  to  be 
reached,  and  second,  the  way  in  which  we  expect  to  reach  them. 
The  insect  itself  lies  close  to  the  bark,  completely  covered  and 
protected  by  the  scaly  secretion  which  is  closely  applied  to  the 
surface  by  its  entire  circumference.  We  must,  before  we  can  get 
at  the  living  creature,  either  corrode  or  dissolve  the  scale ; we 
must  employ  an  agent  subtile  enough  to  penetrate  any  minute 
opening,  able  also  to  kill  the  specimens  when  it  reaches  them  ; or 
we  must  coat  the  scale  with  a wash  which  will  fix  it  permanently 
to  the  tree  and  which  cannot  be  penetrated  by  the  males  when 
they  seek  to  emerge,  or  by  the  larvse  should  the  female  scale  be 
fertilized. 

As  a solvent  or  corrodent,  lime  is  of  some  use  ; but  only  when 
freshly  slaked  and  to  a small  extent.  It  is  not  sufficiently 
certain  for  use  in  this  case.  Caustic  soda  and  crude  potash  are 
very  much  better  and  more  reliable.  Potash  is  used  by  a number 
of  our  growers  as  a winter  wash,  and  it  has  proved  effective  in 
destroying  the  scurfy  scale,  and  the  oyster-shell  bark-louse.  In 
California,  so  it  is  stated  in  Dr.  Riley’s  Report  as  U.  S.  Entomo- 
logist, for  1893,  “A  seriously  infested  orchard  was  treated  with 
absolutely  complete  success,  by  means  of  a wash  composed  of 
one-half  pound  of  commercial  potash,  one-half  pound  of  caustic 
soda,  and  five  quarts  of  water.  This  was  applied  when  the  trees 
were  in  a dormant  condition.” 

Both  potash  and  soda  corrode  the  scales,  and  when  they  reach 
the  insect,  burn  through  it  as  well.  Potash  is  used  in  my  labor- 
atory practice  to  destroy  rapidly  all  muscular  and  other  tissues 
of  the  insects  I wish  to  prepare  for  study,  leaving  only  the 
chitinous  framework,  and  even  this  is  dissolved  in  time.  This 
substance  is,  therefore,  theoretically  and  practically  a good  one  for 
the  destruction  of  scale  insects.  Potash  alone  will  act  as  well  as 


19 


in  combination  with  soda,  and  may  be  purchased  in  one  hundred- 
pound  lots  at  seven  cents  per  pound.  If  this  is  used,  it  should 
be  as  a saturated  solution ; i.  e.,  use  only  water  enough  to  fully 
-dissolve  all  the  potash,  and  this  will  be  facilitated  by  heating  the 
water.  Apply  thoroughly  to  the  entire  tree  when  it  is  dormant. 

As  a penetrating  material  nothing  is  better  than  kerosene.  It 
will  find  its  way  through  the  smallest  opening,  and  where  used 
pure,  will  kill  every  insect  with  which  it  comes  into  contact. 
To  dormant  trees  it  may  be  applied  pure,  and  where  thoroughly 
used  will  prove  effective.  It  is,  however,  even  more  effective 
wrhen  emulsified  with  soapsuds  and  somewhat  diluted.  The 
formula  is  as  follows  : 


Hard  soap,  shaved  fine J pound. 

Soft  water 1 gallon. 

Kerosene 2 gallons. 


Dissolve  the  soap  in  boiling  water,  add  to  the  kerosene,  and 
<diurn  with  a force-pump  until  a smooth,  white,  butter-like  mass 
is  formed  which  adheres  to  glass  without  oiliness.  The  hotter 
the  liquids  are  when  they  are  joined,  the  sooner  the  emulsion 
wrill  be  formed.  If  the  kerosene  is  warm,  the  soapsuds  boiling 
hot,  the  pump  or  syringe  not  cold,  from  three  to  five  minutes 
will  perfect  the  emulsion.  Stirring  with  a stick  will  not  answer, 
nor  will  any  agitation  less  violent  than  that  obtainable  with  a 
syringe  or  pump  produce  a satisfactory  result. 

For  application  against  this  scale  dilute  with  five  parts  of 
water  and  apply  liberally.  The  kerosene  in  this  mixture  does 
not  evaporate  so  readily  as  when  applied  pure,  and  more  oppor- 
tunity is  given  to  penetrate  the  scale.  The  caustic  of  the  soap 
is  also  of  use  in  loosening  the  scale  and  facilitating  the  entrance 
of  the  oil.  An  excess  of  soap  in  the  emulsion  is  therefore  no 
fault,  and  the  emulsion  is  apt  to  be  more  readily  made.  The 
water  should  be  soft  for  best  results  in  making  the  emulsion ; 
but  hard  water  can  be  used  to  dilute. 

The  resin  washes,  which  are  general  favorites  in  California, 
act  by  forming  an  impervious  coat  over  the  insects,  and  also 
through  the  caustic  they  contain.  They  would  not  be  as  satis- 
factory with  us,  because  our  frequent  rains  would  wash  off  the 


20 


mixtures  before  they  had  an  opportunity  to  become  fully  effective.. 
They  are  also  better  for  use  in  summer,  when  the  young  are- 
active,  than  in  winter,  when,  in  my  opinion,  the  most  radical 
measures  are  possible. 

A great  many  experiments  have  been  made  by  the  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture  with  all  the  substances  recom- 
mended for  use  in  California,  and  which  have  proved  more  or 
less  successful  there.  In  all  cases  they  have  proved  very  much 
less  effective  in  the  East.  Mr.  L.  0.  Howard,  United  States 
Entomologist,  wrote  me  November  19th,  “I  have  pretty  well 
determined,  however,  that  we  will  be  obliged  to  abandon  the  lines 
generally  worked  on  in  California — that  is,  lime,  salt  and  sulphur  ; 
lime,  sulphur  and  blue  vitriol ; winter  resin  wash,  and  strong 
kerosene  emulsion.  None  of  these  killed  off  all  of  the  scales, 
although  all  reduced  their  numbers  to  a greater  or  less  extent. 
There  is  unquestionably,  a more  perfect  dormancy  on  the  part 
of  the  scales  here  than  there  is  in  California,  which  probably 
alone  accounts  for  the  comparatively  poor  success  of  these  washes. 
The  only  thing  which  I have  found,  so  far,  which  I can  say  is 
almost  absolutely  complete  in  its  work,  is  a solution  of  two 
pounds  of  whale-oil  soap  to  one  gallon  of  water.  A tree  which 
Mr.  Coquillett  sprayed  with  this  mixture  the  third  week  in 
October  was  examined  by  me  yesterday,  and  although  I spent 
nearly  an  hour  going  over  the  tree,  I failed  to  find  a single 
living  scale.  Even  those  which  had  worked  their  way  down 
between  the  scales  of  the  buds  were  killed.”  Whale-oil  soap  is 
rather  expensive,  and  especially  if  it  is  to  be  used  at  the  strength 
recommended — that  is,  two  pounds  to  one  gallon  of  water.  A 
fish-oil  soap  can  be  made,  however,  without  difficulty  by  farmers 
themselves  according  to  the  following  formula : 


Crystal  potash  lye 1 pound. 

Fish  oil 3 pints. 

Soft  water 2 gallons. 


Dissolve  the  lye  in  the  water,  and  when  brought  to  a boil  add 
the  oil.  It  should  boil  about  two  hours,  and  when  done  can  be 
filled  up  to  make  up  the  loss  by  evaporation. 


21 


This  will  make  a batch  of  about  twenty-five  pounds,  or  enough 
for  thirteen  gallons  of  water.  It  should  be  applied  with  very 
great  thoroughness,  so  as  to  wet  to  dripping  every  portion  of  the 
tree.  The  cost  will  be  about  one  cent  per  pound. 

It  remains,  finally,  to  mention  the  gas  treatment.  This  has 
been  much  used  in  California  against  scale  insects  infesting 
^Citrus  trees,  and  is  extremely  effective.  It  is  also  quite  expen- 
sive ; not  so  much  in  the  materials  used  as  in  the  outfit  required. 
Essentially  it  means  inclosing  the  tree  to  be  treated  by  an  oiled 
•canvas  tent,  and  producing  in  this  confined  space  hydrocyanic 
acid  gas,  by  means  of  the  action  of  diluted  sulphuric  acid  on 
fused  cyanide  of  potassium.  The  proportions  are,  one  ounce  by 
weight  of  not  above  sixty  per  cent,  cyanide  of  potassium,  one 
fluid  ounce  commercial  sulphuric  acid,  and  three  ounces  water. 
This  is  sufficient  for  an  inclosed  space  of  one  hundred  and  fifty 
•cubic  feet.  After  a tree  is  inclosed,  the  water  is  first  poured  into 
any  glazed  earthenware  vessel ; the  acid  follows  and  the  receptacle 
is  placed  under  the  tent.  The  cyanide  is  then  added,  and  the 
gas  at  once  begins  to  arise.  It  is  lighter  than  air,  and  displaces 
the  latter  in  a very  short  time.  It  is  also  excessively  poisonous, 
and  deadly  to  all  animals,  including  man,  and  care  should  be 
taken  not  to  breathe  it.  The  trees  should  remain  exposed  to  the 
action  of  the  gas  about  one  hour,  and  this  will  generally  kill  all 
the  scale  insects  infesting  it,  and  will  rid  it  also  of  all  other  sorts 
of  insect  life  that  is  not  in  the  egg  or  pupa  stage. 

It  has  been  found  that  warmth  and  daylight  affect  the  action 
of  the  gas,  making  it  more  dangerous  to  plants  and  less  deadly 
to  insects.  Fumigation,  therefore,  is  best  made  at  night,  or  late 
in  the  afternoon  of  a cool  day,  when  its  action  on  insects  is  at 
its  maximum  and  its  effect  on  plants  at  a minimum. 

This  treatment  is  not  recommended  in  New  Jersey,  because  no 
orchard  known  to  me  is  sufficiently  infested  to  authorize  the 
-expense  required  to  supply  the  necessary  outfit. 

A modification  of  it,  however,  should  be  adopted  by  the 
. nurseries.  All  stock  infested  or  suspected  of  infestation  should 
be  fumigated  before  being  sent  out.  The  trees  should  be  either 
heeled  in  or  made  up  in  bundles,  the  roots  wrapped  to  retain 
znoisture,  and  the  mass,  covered  by  oiled  canvas  or  other  gas- 


22 


tight  material,  should  be  fumigated  one  hour.  The  material1 
should  he  used  at  the  rate  given — i.  e .,  one  ounce  of  cyanide  to» 
one  hundred  and  fifty  cubic  feet  of  space. 

Recommendations. 

On  consideration  of  all  that  has  been  said  above,  concerning 
life  history  and  available  remedies,  the  following  suggestions  for 
practice  are  made : 

First.  Every  orchard  that  has  been  set  out  within  the  last  six 
years  should  be  thoroughly  examined  to  ascertain  whether  or  not 
the  scale  is  present. 

Second.  If  it  proves  to  be  present  and  is  confined  to  a few  trees, . 
the  trees  had  better  be  taken  out  and  destroyed,  unless  the  infesta- 
tion is  so  slight  that  the  trees  can  be  gone  over  with  a stiff  brush 
and  all  the  scales  actually  brushed  off. 

Third.  If  the  orchard  is  young,  and  the  trees  are  not  too  large  - 
to  be  handled,  it  will  he  best  to  use  a stiff  brush  and,  taking  each 
tree  separately,  brush  off  all  the  scales.  This  looks  like  a good 
deal  of  mechanical  work  ; but  it  will  pay  in  the  end.  It  can  be 
done  at  any  time  during  the  winter ; it  will  be  absolutely  effec- 
tive and,  with  care,  there  need  be  no  further  trouble  from  this 
insect  in  an  orchard  so  treated. 

Fourth.  If  the  trees  are  too  numerous  to  be  treated  by  hand,  or 
are  too  large  to  be  conveniently  handled,  prune  back  liberally, 
removing  as  much  wood  as  the  tree  can  easily  spare.  The  cut- 
tings should  be  carted  off  and  burnt  as  a matter  of  precaution, 
and  what  remains  of  the  trees  should  be  washed  with  the  potash 
solution  above  described.  This  should  be  done  as  soon  as  may 
be,  and  a month  later,  during  a moderately  mild  spell,  the  trees 
should  be  again  treated,  this  time  with  the  kerosene  emulsion, 
made  as  above  described  and  diluted  five  times.  The  object  of 
this  double  treatment  is,  first,  by  means  of  the  potash  to  dissolve 
or  corrode  the  scales  to  a greater  or  less  extent,  and  to  kill  off  a 
considerable  proportion  of  the  insects  themselves.  At  the  end  of 
a month  the  potash  will  probably  have  been  washed  down  and 
all  dissolved  away,  so  as  to  exert  no  further  action.  The  scales*. 


'however,  will  be  thinned  down,  riddled  or  loosened  from  their 
hold,  and  an  application  of  the  kerosene  emulsion  then  made 
will  give  it  abundant  opportunity  to  reach  the  insect.  If  both 
these  materials  are  applied  thoroughly,  the  kerosene  will  finish 
any  work  left  undone  by  the  potash  and  not  a single  specimen 
need  escape. 

Fifth.  Large  or  bearing  trees  should  be  treated  much  as  de- 
scribed under  the  previous  heading — that  is  to  say,  they  should 
be  cut  back  as  far  as  it  is  possible  to  do  without  endangering  the 
tree.  If  the  bark  of  the  tree  is  rough,  it  should  be  first  scraped 
in  order  to  get  rid  of  all  loose  material.  Then  the  potash  should 
be  applied,  and  afterward  the  kerosene  emulsion,  as  described 
under  the  previous  heading.  Properly  carried  out,  these  recom- 
mendations should  enable  any  orchardist  to  rid  his  trees  com- 
pletely, not  only  of  the  San  Jose,  but  of  all  other  scale  insects 
infesting  his  orchards. 

In  place  of  the  suggestions  above,  made,  the  whale-oil  soap 
treatment,  described  in  a previous  paragraph,  may  be  adopted  ; 
but  this  also  should  be  applied  twice  in  order  to  make  it  certainly 
effective. 

All  these  recommendations  are,  of  course,  for  winter  treatment, 
when  there  is  no  foliage  to  interfere  with  the  application  of  the 
material.  If  for  any  reason  winter  treatment  is  not  possible, 
then  spring  treatment  should  be  delayed  until  the  young  larvae 
are  observed  crawling  about.  The  kerosene  emulsion  should 
then  be  used,  diluted  with  nine  parts  of  water,  and  the  spraying 
should  be  thorough.  Two  additional  sprayings  should  be  made 
at  intervals  of  not  more  than  a week,  in  order  to  kill  off  the 
young  that  are  continually  hatching,  and  to  destroy  the  young 
scales  that  have  just  set.  Three  such  applications,  properly 
made,  should  be  effective,  and  should  be  all  that  is  necessary ; 
but  if  young  larvae  are  again  noticed  later  on,  and  it  is  evident 
that  scales  are  still  alive,  the  application  should  be  repeated  as 
often  as  may  be  necessary  until  no  further  larvae  are  seen  on  the 
tree.  I would  again,  however,  urge  most  strongly  immediate 
attention  to  orchards,  and  the  winter  treatment  above  outlined. 
The  trees  when  dormant  will  stand  a great  deal  more  than  when 


24 


they  are  active,  while  the  insects  are  not  more  resistant  than  they 
are  during  the  summer.  Applications,  therefore,  that  are  im- 
possible in  summer  can  be  readily  made  in  winter,  and  the  winter 
treatment  is  not  only  more  effective,  but  is  on  the  whole  cheaper. 

This  scale  is  in  some  respects  the  most  important  insect  that 
has  been  introduced  into  our  State  within  recent  years.  Its  wide 
range  of  food  plants,  its  marvelous  powers  of  multiplication,  and 
its  deadly  effect  upon  the  infested  trees,  all  make  it  a pest  of  the 
first  rank.  No  farmer  ought  to  consider  the  matter  unimportant 
enough  to  neglect,  even  though  he  has  only  a single  tree.  It  is, 
I think,  still  possible  to  exterminate  this  insect  in  our  State,  and 
by  care  to  prevent  its  re-introduction,  and  this  leads  me  to  my 
last,  which  was  also  my  first,  recommendation : carefully  and 
thoroughly  examine  every  tree  and  every  shrub  received  from 
nurseries  before  setting  them  out,  and  whenever  anything  sus- 
picious is  noticed  reject  the  stock  rather  than  put  it  into  the  field, 
and  run  the  risk  of  losing  not  only  that  which  has  been  just 
planted,  but  also  everything  else  that  may  be  in  the  vicinity. 


£j|ffe3  n 


3 0112  051108410 


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